绿色基础设施的洪水调节服务供需测度研究进展

绿色基础设施(green infrastructure, GI)可提供高效且可获取的洪水调节服务,其供需测度是提升服务水平的基础与前提,可为城市土地利用与绿色基础设施规划提供决策依据。以GI洪水调节服务供需为研究对象,梳理GI洪水调节服务供需的概念内涵、主体构成和尺度关系。回顾了GI洪水调节服务供需测度方法,包括土地利用测度法、生态系统测度法和洪水调蓄模型法等供应水平测度方法,以及风险评估法、洪水淹没模型法和经济损失法等需求水平测度方法。基于生态系统服务的供需关系,构建了GI洪水调节服务供需分析框架,通过供需数量均衡和空间匹配将供需关系分为四种情景,对应服务动态平衡、调整服务供需水平和服务流动机制3种调控手段。从服务测度重点、动态变化分析、供需阈值效能、服务流动机制等四个方面提出了未来研究方向,以期对绿色基础设施规划研究和生态系统服务管理与决策研究有所启示。     

Bundles of ecosystem (dis)services and multifunctionality across European landscapes

We present an assessment of the spatial pattern of ecosystem services (ES) associations across Europe based on models of eleven ES and one dis-service, mapped at the extent of twenty-seven Member States of the European Union (EU27) on a 1 km² grid. We isolated three clusters of cells sharing common features in multi-ES supply associated with the main land-use-land-cover types such as forests and agricultural lands. Confronting these spatial patterns with biophysical and socio-economic drivers revealed two strong gradients structuring European ES bundles, climate and land use intensity. Variations in the diversity of ES bundles provided across administrative units (NUTS 2), quantified by the Shannon diversity index, tend to be higher in forested regions (e.g. SE Romania) and in the mosaic landscapes in the central EU27 (from eastern France to Austria). Lower diversity prevails in areas of homogeneous terrain and land use in north-western Europe (e.g. Western France). Our findings illustrate that ES trade-offs and bundles cannot be reduced to land use conflicts but also depend on climate and, for a specific bundle, to biodiversity.     

Use of ecosystem information derived from forest thematic maps for spatial analysis of ecosystem services in northwestern Spain

A clear link between ecosystem services (ES) and human well-being has been established in the recent decades. Thus, forests are recognised as extremely important ecosystems in relation to their capacity to provide goods and services to society. Nevertheless, this capacity greatly depends on the type of forest and on the management applied. Some types of data often used for this type of analysis, such as land use/land cover maps produced for general purposes, are not always appropriate for representing forest ecosystems and the services they offer. In this study, we used a forest map (Spanish National Forest Map: scale 1:25,000) and information describing composition and structure to assess six services closely associated with forest ecosystems in a forest-dominated zone of northwestern Spain on a regional scale. The following ES were considered: provision of food (basically fruits), provision of materials (timber and pulp), provision of biomass for energy (firewood), climate regulation (carbon storage by above-ground biomass), erosion regulation (protection against erosion), and cultural (recreational use and nature tourism). By combining information about tree species and cover with forest harvest data and other statistics, we established representative spatial models for the six ES representing different categories of the potential supply of each one. The six models were analysed by different methods (Spearman’s correlation, Moran’s I and Getis-Ord Gi*), enabling detection of hotspots and coldspots and the characteristic spatial scales for ES supply. The combined use of highly detailed map data, nonspatial databases and spatial analysis yielded accurate ES supply assessment.     

A multiscale analysis of ecosystem services supply in the NW Iberian Peninsula from a functional perspective

In recent years, the assessment of ecosystem services (ES) supply has been based on the use of Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) data as proxies for spatial representation of ecosystems. Nevertheless, some shortcomings of this method, such as uncertainties derived from generalization of the ecosystem types and assumptions of invariance across spatial scales, indicate the need for new approaches. Such approaches could be aimed at improving knowledge of the relationships between ecosystem services and landscape structure and the spatial characteristics of ES patterns. In this study, we propose an integrative approach that involves the generation and analysis of continuous maps representing the supply of five ES potentially related to the amount of biomass. Five remote sensing images of the Northwestern Iberian Peninsula, obtained with Landsat-5 TM, were used to generate a proxy for net primary production by combining the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) of each image to calculate a ΣNDVI index that could act as a potential indicator of some ecosystem services. This information was combined with three variables – terrain slope, population density and occurrence of protected areas – to produce spatial models for the five ES and eventually a series of five supply maps. Food, materials and energy provision services showed a clustered pattern, with high supply values in flat zones and areas with high population densities. In contrast, mass flow and climate regulation services were more widely distributed throughout the study area. The five ecosystem service patterns were analyzed at different scales by two methods: lacunarity and four term local quadrat variance (4TLQV) analysis. These methods revealed differences in the spatial pattern: lacunarity analysis was useful for detection of scale thresholds at the local level, whereas 4TLQV was more sensitive to scale thresholds at larger spatial levels. Thus, the variance analysis yielded higher values for larger windows sizes, particularly for provisioning services. The results demonstrated the suitability of the proposed approach for the spatially explicit modeling of ecosystem services, avoiding the uncertainty of other assessments such as those based on LULC data, and for the exploratory analysis of ES supply from a spatial point of view.     

Mapping ecosystem services demand: A review of current research and future perspectives

Mapping the demand for ecosystem services (ES) has received increased attention in scientific research and is seen as a relevant tool to inform conservation planning, land use planning and management. Yet, there is a varying understanding of the concept of ES demand, which has implications on how and where ES demand is being mapped. In this paper we review the current conceptual understanding of ES demand, indicators to measure demand and the approaches used to quantify and map demand. We identified four distinct “demand types”, which relate to different ecosystem service categories. These demand types include demand expressed in terms of (1) risk reduction, (2) preferences and values, (3) direct use or (4) consumption of goods and services. Each of the demand types was linked to specific methods applied in the reviewed literature. We found that operationalization of ES demand in policy, planning and management requires a more consistent understanding and definition of ES demand, its drivers and its temporal dynamics. Furthermore, the impact of demands for multiple ecosystem services on land use change needs to be investigated. This will allow for the consideration of temporal and cross-level interactions between supply and demand of ecosystem services and its impacts in land use change modelling.     

Valuing ecosystem services to explore scenarios for adaptive spatial planning

As the ecosystem services concept increasingly gains importance, it needs translation into practical applications. Recent efforts of EU member states to map ES are opening new opportunities to include ES in spatial planning and adaptive land management. For this, spatial planners and policy makers need practical tools that integrate a variety of social and biophysical information in an accessible way. We argue that monetary valuation of ES can contribute to this challenge. A methodological framework was developed to explore adaptive management of bioproductive space. The first stage in the methodology is a spatially explicit evaluation of various ecosystem services for different land uses. In a second stage, bio-physical and socio-economic drivers or shocks are introduced that can influence the value society attributes to specific ecosystem services. The third stage of the methodology takes policy priorities into account. In a final stage, the output of the approach is synthesised by ranking the analysis results for different scenarios and policy priority settings. This methodology allows spatial planners to explore and evaluate policy decisions against trade-offs between various land use alternatives, while taking ecosystem services into account. To demonstrate its use, the methodology is applied to a small-scale case study that combines extensive livestock production with the development of natural values. The application to the case demonstrates that the optimal strategy from a societal perspective, can be highly context-dependent. Besides the potential for supporting policy makers to think about the broader implications of land use changes for community wellbeing, the methodology provides useful feedback for adaptive farm and landscape management. We underline both the potential and possible caveats in using this approach for land use evaluation.     

Water-related ecosystem services in Western Siberian lowland basins—Analysing and mapping spatial and seasonal effects on regulating services based on ecohydrological modelling results

For discussing and planning sustainable land management of river basins, stakeholders need suitable information on spatio-temporal patterns of natural processes and human actions. This study shows an approach to use ecohydrological modelling results for assessing water-related ecosystem services in three lowland river basins in Western Siberia. Based on the results of the ecohydrological model SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool, Arnold et al., 1998), simulated output variables were used as indicators for the two regulating services water flow regulation and erosion regulation. The model results were translated into a relative ecosystem service valuation scale, which facilitates the comparison of different ecosystem services and which serves as the base for the applied mapping approach. The ecosystem service maps show different spatial and seasonal patterns. Although the daily modelling results were aggregated to seasonal maps to generate an understandable amount of information for stakeholders, differences can be depicted: during snowmelt, low regulation can be determined, especially for water flow regulation, but a very high regulation was calculated for the vegetation period during summer and for the winter period. Erosion regulation is high in two basins during all seasons. Spatio-temporal differences were modelled only for the largest basin. The SWAT model serves as a suitable quantification method for the assessment of the selected water-related regulating services.     

Spatial assessment of ecosystem goods and services in complex production landscapes: A case study from south-eastern Australia

Many production landscapes are complex human-environment systems operating at various spatio-temporal scales and provide a variety of ecosystem goods and services (EGS) vital to human well-being. EGS change over space and time as a result of changing patterns of land use or changes in the composition and structure of different vegetation types. Spatio-temporal assessment of EGS can provide valuable information on the consequences of changing land use and land cover for EGS and helps to deal with this complexity. We carried out a quantitative and qualitative appraisal of selected EGS (timber production, carbon stock, provision of water, water regulation, biodiversity, and forage production) to understand how these have altered in a complex mosaic of landscape that has undergone significant change over the past 200 years.Land use and land cover types and their associated EGS were assessed and mapped using a wide range of readily available data and tools. We also evaluated the trade-offs among services associated with observed land use change. In contrast to work elsewhere, we found the recent changes in land use and land cover have an overall positive impact on various EGS due mainly to the conversion of pasture to managed plantations which are connected to the larger areas of remnant vegetation. Results also indicate that there was a high level of variation in the distribution of the EGS across the landscape. Relatively intact native vegetation provides mainly regulating services whereas the modified landscapes provides provisioning services such as timber and forage production at the cost of regulating services. Rapidly changing demand and supply of certain goods and services (e.g., timber, pulp or carbon) may also have positive and negative impact on other services. For example, increasing plantation rotation has positive impacts for biodiversity and carbon stock but reduces stream flow and water yield.     

湟水流域生态系统服务供需匹配关系

生态系统服务供需可以反映出区域生态经济发展协调水平,在空间上量化生态系统服务的供给和需求,识别生态系统服务的供需匹配关系,对区域生态系统可持续管理具有重要意义。湟水流域是西北生态屏障建设的重要组成部分,其生态系统服务供需平衡直接关系到青海东部地区的生态安全,为了识别流域生态系统服务供需匹配状况,综合集成多源数据,运用多种生物物理模型定量评估湟水流域食物生产、产水、土壤保持和碳固定服务,刻画流域内生态系统服务供需格局的空间特征,揭示各项生态系统服务供需的空间聚集模式,生成具有高度连通性的区域,为生态优先保护区划分提供参考。研究表明：（1）湟水流域生态系统服务供给和需求在空间分布上具有高度异质性,除去产水服务,其他三项生态系统服务整体上能够满足流域内部需求,但局部区域仍然呈现明显的赤字特征;（2）不同生态系统服务的供需比差异明显,由高到低依次为是碳固存（0.188）、食物生产（0.114）、土壤保持（0.026）和产水服务（-0.021）,各项服务的供需比都具有显著的空间差异;（3）流域内生态系统服务供需的空间错配现象突出,除产水服务外,各项生态系统服务都有"高供给低需求"地区和"低供给高需求"地区,"高供给低需求"区主要分布在流域上游生态基底条件好的区域,"低供给高需求"区集中在流域中下游的河湟谷地;（4）土地利用类型影响生态系统服务供需平衡,流域实现供需平衡需要适度增加林草地比例,控制耕地和城市用地的扩张。研究系统分析了湟水流域生态系统服务供需盈亏状况,可为流域生态系统可持续管理与土地资源配置决策提供科学支撑。     

生态系统服务需求、供给和消费研究进展

生态系统服务的持续供给是社会和自然可持续发展的基础,人类通过对生态系统服务的消费来满足需求和提高自身福祉。研究人类对生态系统服务的需求、消费,分析生态系统服务的供给与需求关系,对生态系统的管理、土地发展规划和资源的合理有效配置具有重要意义。首先分析了生态系统服务需求、供给和消费的内涵与特征,辨析了生态系统服务的有效需求和潜在需求、有效供给与潜在供给,进而提出了生态系统服务需求与供给研究框架,指出应研究生态系统服务供给和需求的空间关联以及生态系统服务需求弹性差异,进而因地制宜地调控生态系统服务供给使得生态系统服务效用最大化。梳理并比较了对生态系统服务供给和需求的量化指标和研究方法,包括基于土地利用和土地覆被的生态系统服务供需关系矩阵法、生态足迹法、公众参与法、模型计算法等。提出了未来的相关研究主要应从不同群体的需求弹性差异、跨学科与多源数据结合的需求定量评估方法、供需关系的多尺度分析、生态系统服务需求与人类福祉的耦合机制拓展等方面展开,为生态系统服务调控管理和社会的可持续发展提供切实可行的科学依据。     

基于土地利用/覆被变化的伊河流域生态系统服务供需风险时空演变

生态系统服务的供需矛盾造成土地利用方式不合理,引发各种生态环境问题,制约和影响流域可持续发展和居民福祉提升,加强生态系统服务供需关系的研究具有重大意义。以具有“山地—丘陵—平原”景观的河南省伊河流域为研究区,首先利用基于土地利用的生态系统服务矩阵对生态系统服务的供给与需求进行制图,分析生态系统服务供需的时空变化;其次,结合供给动态趋势、需求动态趋势、供需比及供需比趋势比4个指标对伊河流域生态系统服务供需风险时空演变特征分析。结果表明：(1)1980—2018年伊河流域生态系统服务需求水平持续增加,供给水平持续降低,上游调节服务供给水平较强,中下游的供给服务提供水平较高,下游生态系统服务需求远大于上游。(2)栅格尺度下,1980—2018年流域生态系统服务供需高、低风险区占比分别为3.57%、96.43%,2000—2018年高风险等级面积较1980—2000年有所增加。(3)1980—2018年伊河流域7.69%的子流域高风险等级面积大于10%,7号和26号子流域风险等级相对本流域而言处于较高风险程度,2000—2018年的子流域这一比例达15.38%,且都分布于下游,整体上看,近20...     

Testing the applicability of ecosystem services mapping methods for peri-urban contexts: A case study for Paris

Through their semi-natural and agricultural areas, peri-urban regions are pivotal in providing ecosystem services (ES) to city dwellers. To quantify the ES provided by these areas, it is possible to use ES mapping methods: many ES mapping methods rely on land cover maps, but most maps are coarse compared to the peri-urban scale. Nevertheless, readily-available land use data and methods are often used to map ES at such scales, without contextualisation. As a result, such methods may not be able to capture the diversity that is present in the peri-urban vegetation, which could have consequences for their accuracy and furthermore for urban planning policies.To increase our understanding of the applicability of ES mapping methods in peri-urban regions, we assessed to what degree sites with similar plant composition in the green belt of Paris, France, were also projected to have similar ES bundles. We considered two commonly used ES model types: proxy-based models (here: look-up tables) and phenomenological models. We used 252 sites for which botanical survey data were available and applied the ES models to seven ES relevant in the peri-urban context. A cluster analysis was used to group sites, hence facilitating analyse of the spatial congruence between types of vegetation and bundles of ES.Clustering sites based on plant composition revealed six distinct clusters. Clustering sites based on ES bundles as estimated by phenomenological models and proxy-based models, resulted in four and two clusters, respectively. The proxy-based clustering only highlighted broad-leaved forests as an important ES supply source. The phenomenological model estimates of ES allowed a more nuanced clustering of sites into four different groups. The level of congruence between the different sets of clusters based on plant composition and estimated ES bundles was low. Except for forests, the commonly used ES models tested here were not able to represent the same level of heterogeneity in the peri-urban landscape as was found in the vegetation. Our results demonstrate the need to integrate finer scale approaches and primary data in ES assessments of peri-urban areas.     

A new indicator of the effectiveness of urban green infrastructure based on ecosystem services assessment

The contribution of urban green infrastructure (UGI) to human well-being has been demonstrated in several studies. A common method to evaluate such contributions is to measure the ecosystem services (ES) provided by the vegetation or water bodies present in urban green and blue spaces (UGBS) that constitute the UGI. The efficiency and spatial distribution of diverse types of UGBS in the provision of various ES could be considered by urban planners or managers to define specific objectives in future planning processes. In this context, we propose a methodological approach to develop an effective UGI based on an index of mismatches between supply and demand of ES (MbSDES) that addresses the mismatches between supply and demand for three ES (run-off retention, air purification, and cooling) provided by different UGBS in the city of Bilbao (Basque Country, North Spain). ES supply and demand for the three ES were at the urban neighbourhood level. The results indicate that there was a clear mismatch between ES supply and demand in the study area with 35% of the neighbourhood showing negative values for the MbSDES, which indicated that the actual UGBS do not satisfy the demand for ES. Hence, those areas with ES supply deficits should be a priority when planning new green areas (parks, tree lines, urban gardens) within the municipality. This challenge could be addressed by selecting the type of UGBS structure that is planned and improving the net efficiency of the UGI.     

西南地区生态系统服务供需历史变化与SSP-RCP情景预测

生态系统服务的供需平衡对实现可持续发展至关重要。为了更好地了解过去气候变化和社会经济发展对生态系统服务的影响,并对未来不同气候和社会经济发展情景做出正确响应,有必要对生态系统服务的供需变化进行系统的评估和预测。研究对我国西南地区2000、2010、2015年的水源涵养、食物生产和固碳3项生态系统服务的供给和需求进行了定量的空间评估,然后基于IPCC(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)提出的社会经济发展和气候变化联合情景框架,即SSP-RCP情景(Shared Socio-economic Pathways-Representative Concentration Pathways),对此3项生态系统服务在未来2035年和2050年的供给和需求进行了SSP1-RCP2.6、SSP2-RCP4.5、SSP4-RCP6.0和SSP5-RCP8.5 4个情景下的预测。结果显示,西南地区水源涵养和固碳服务的供给和需求具有显著的空间不匹配特征,且其需求从2000—2015年分别增长了11.49%和252.41%。根据SSP-RCP情景预测结果,水源...     

基于矩阵分析的水文调节服务供需关系时空分异研究——以嘉兴市为例

生态系统服务供需关系的识别、度量、空间化分析对自然资源合理配置有重要的意义。以嘉兴市为研究区,以2005年Landsat7 ETM+影像和2015年Landsat8 OLI传感器影像为数据源,采用生态系统服务供需关系矩阵法,分析嘉兴市水文调节服务供给能力与需求水平的时空分异特征。结果表明:(1)2005—2015年10年间,嘉兴市处于快速城市化阶段,土地利用变化明显,建设用地显著增加,水域、水田面积有所增加,旱地、园地、林地大量减少。(2)土地利用变化是影响水文调节服务供需关系的主要因素,研究发现嘉兴市大部分地区水文调节服务处于供不应求的状态。(3)随着建设用地的不断扩张,导致水文调节服务供需矛盾加剧,供不应求区域由中心城区向城市边缘区扩大。(4)水文调节服务需求区域的变化与人类活动密切相关,供给区域受制于自然环境的数量与质量,生态系统服务供给与需求存在错位,促进了生态系统服务流的产生,并需要政策引导。     

雄安新区生态系统服务需求空间分布格局预测

设立雄安新区是千年大计、国家大事。明晰生态系统服务需求的空间分布及时间变化趋势,有助于探究雄安新区生态系统服务对社会经济发展的促进和制约作用,支持生态系统服务管理和政策的执行。在已有对单一时间维度的生态系统服务研究基础上,增加了对时空变异性的关注,对雄安新区未来时间节点生态系统服务需求的时空分布特征进行预测,首先选取土地利用开发程度、人口密度、经济密度3个指标建立了生态系统服务需求预测模型,然后根据综合增长率法和地区类比法预测土地利用格局、人口密度和经济密度,最后叠加分析得到雄安新区2035年和2050年生态系统服务需求空间分布格局。预测结果表明,2035年起步区人口密度和经济密度将大幅增加,进而带动生态系统服务需求的增加;本世纪中叶,新区人口密度和经济密度的绝对值将大幅度提高,生态系统服务需求高值区主要集中在"一主、五辅"城区范围,与城乡空间布局相呼应。基于研究结果,提出优化土地利用结构、加强白洋淀保护与修复和建设宏观-中观-微观多尺度生态基础设施几条建议,以期为未来的生态系统服务供给、生态基础设施建设和城市规划布局等提供指导。     

From instantaneous to continuous: Using imaging spectroscopy and in situ data to map two productivity-related ecosystem services

Spatially well-informed decisions are essential to sustain and regulate processes and ecosystem services (ES), and to maintain the capacity of ecosystems to supply services. However, spatially explicit ES information is often lacking in decision-making, or exists only as ES maps based on categorical land cover data. Remote sensing (RS) opens new pathways to map ES, in particular biophysical ES supply. We developed an observation-based concept for spatially explicit and continuous ES mapping at landscape scale following the biophysical part of the ES cascade. We used Earth observations in combination with in situ data to map ecosystem properties, functions, and biophysical ES supply. We applied this concept in a case study to map two ES: carbon dioxide regulation and food supply. Based on Earth observations and in situ data, we determined the ecosystem property Sun-Induced chlorophyll Fluorescence (SIF) to indicate ecosystem state and applied scaling models to estimate gross primary production (GPP) as indicator for ecosystem functioning and consequently carbon dioxide regulation and food supply as ES.Resulting ES maps showed heterogeneous patterns in ES supply within and among ecosystems, which were particularly evident within forests and grasslands. All investigated land cover classes were sources of CO₂, with averages ranging from ‐66 to ‐748 g C m^‐2 yr^‐1, after considering the harvest of total above ground biomass of crops and the storage organ, except for forest being a sink of CO₂ with an average of 105 g C m^‐2 yr^‐1. Estimated annual GPP was related to food supply with a maize grain yield average of 9.5 t ha^‐1 yr^‐1 and a sugar beet root yield of 110 t ha^‐1 yr^‐1. Validation with in situ measurements from flux towers and literature values revealed a good performance of our approach for food supply (relative RMSE of less than 23%), but also some over- and underestimations for carbon dioxide regulation. Our approach demonstrated how RS can contribute to spatially explicit and continuous ES cascade mapping and suggest that this information could be useful for environmental assessments and decision-making in spatial planning and conservation.     

基于固碳服务供需视角的河南省碳平衡研究

土地利用变化影响陆地系统碳循环过程。在实现碳中和目标的背景下,分析区域碳平衡,优化土地利用结构具有现实意义。以河南省为例,以1 km网格为单元,应用InVEST碳固存模块、IPCC碳排放核算、人口密度法等方法,研究1995、2005、2015年区域碳平衡的时空变化。结果表明,研究区固碳服务的供需量与土地利用类型密切相关。固碳服务的供需在空间存在错配关系,即需求高的地区通常具有较低的供给。研究时段内,研究区的总碳固量逐年下降,总碳排放量逐年增加,研究区碳平衡表现为整体向好,局部恶化的情况。在碳平衡分析的基础上提出了空间优化利用建议,可为未来国土空间规划碳平衡目标的实现提供参考。     

城市绿色基础设施生态系统服务供给与需求的空间关系——以西安市为例

城市绿色基础设施(Urban Green Infrastructure,UGI)是城市自然景观和生态环境的主要营造者,为居民提供关键的生态系统服务。探讨UGI生态系统服务供给及其需求之间的空间关系,对城市生态建设和绿地系统规划具有重要科学意义。本文运用生态系统服务测算的方法基于人口、GDP以及土地利用数据构建需求测算模型,对西安市建成区UGI的生态系统服务供给与需求的空间格局进行研究,并分析了城市各功能区内UGI生态系统服务供给与需求的空间关系。结果表明:西安市建成区UGI生态系统服务供给总价值为4.23亿元;生态系统服务供给从研究区边缘向中心区逐渐减少,而生态系统服务需求表现出相反的格局,在空间上明显不一致,并且在城市各功能区内差别显著;西安市建成区UGI生态系统服务供给与城市对生态系统服务需求在空间分布上不相匹配。因此为了实现城市的生态环境与经济社会的可持续发展,迫切需要通过合理的UGI建设使生态系统服务供需趋于协调。