Assessing the relationship between ecosystem functions and services: Importance of local ecological conditions

The development of standard procedures for mapping ecosystem services (ES) hotspots is an active research issue, mainly because it is very important to provide spatially reliable information to decision makers on land-use planning. When ES supply is estimated and mapped from sets of contributing ecosystem functions (EF), it is important to identify which of them contribute the most to a particular ES. Also, it is crucial to determine whether that contribution varies across different ecological contexts. In this work, we used an expert-knowledge-elicitation approach to build “integration matrices” that resume the relationships between EF and ES in four different ecoregions of southern South America (Valdivian Forests, Campos, Chaco and Pampas). To verify the utility of creating different matrices, we compared the results of the Pampas ecoregion with an average score matrix from the four selected ecoregions. Results showed that the contribution of EF to ES differed slightly using the Pampas and the general matrix. We also mapped hotspots of three ES in a real landscape from the Pampas, using both matrices and the ECOSER protocol for ES supply mapping. The location of ES supply hotspots differed between matrices, but the amount of discrepancies was not proportional to the differences in matrices scores. This suggests that the developed matrix that takes into account local ecological conditions provides a more reliable source of spatially explicit information on ES supply for decision makers than a general matrix. The integration matrices generated in this study are useful for different protocols of ES supply mapping.     

Conservation planning for ecosystem services

Despite increasing attention to the human dimension of conservation projects, a rigorous, systematic methodology for planning for ecosystem services has not been developed. This is in part because flows of ecosystem services remain poorly characterized at local-to-regional scales, and their protection has not generally been made a priority. We used a spatially explicit conservation planning framework to explore the trade-offs and opportunities for aligning conservation goals for biodiversity with six ecosystem services (carbon storage, flood control, forage production, outdoor recreation, crop pollination, and water provision) in the Central Coast ecoregion of California, United States. We found weak positive and some weak negative associations between the priority areas for biodiversity conservation and the flows of the six ecosystem services across the ecoregion. Excluding the two agriculture-focused services—crop pollination and forage production—eliminates all negative correlations. We compared the degree to which four contrasting conservation network designs protect biodiversity and the flow of the six services. We found that biodiversity conservation protects substantial collateral flows of services. Targeting ecosystem services directly can meet the multiple ecosystem services and biodiversity goals more efficiently but cannot substitute for targeted biodiversity protection (biodiversity losses of 44% relative to targeting biodiversity alone). Strategically targeting only biodiversity plus the four positively associated services offers much promise (relative biodiversity losses of 7%). Here we present an initial analytical framework for integrating biodiversity and ecosystem services in conservation planning and illustrate its application. We found that although there are important potential trade-offs between conservation for biodiversity and for ecosystem services, a systematic planning framework offers scope for identifying valuable synergies.     

河流景观生态服务供给与需求/消费的互馈机制

河流景观系统孕育了人类文明,为人类社会提供类型多样的生态系统服务。其本身是一个自然景观过程和社会经济过程高度耦合的社会-生态系统,具有极高的空间异质性、时间动态和鲜明的组织尺度等级结构。当前,对河流景观系统这种特点所决定的生态系统服务供给与需求/消费互馈的机制研究不够深入,普遍缺乏从过程角度刻画生态服务供给与需求/消费互馈关系及其时空异质性和尺度特征。生态服务供给、需求和消费产生于社会-生态系统,是社会-生态耦合的纽带。阐述了河流景观生态服务供给和需求/消费的时空异质性,阐释了它们时空耦合机制和尺度特征,梳理了当前对生态服务供给、需求/消费互馈机理研究的不足。认为未来需要在社会-生态系统的框架下,从景观结构和生态过程出发,融合景观生态过程和社会过程来深入认识河流景观系统的生态服务供给与区内人类对生态服务的需求/消费之间的互馈机制。未来应重点关注：（1）河流景观结构和过程决定的生态服务供给和消费的空间分异及驱动机制;（2）河流生态服务传输的自然和人文载体及其耦合格局;（3）将生态服务需求/消费通过景观结构和生态过程对生态服务供给的反馈融入生态服务评估的方法框架,研发基于生态服务供给和需求/消费的社会-生态互馈过程模型。     

A multiscale analysis of ecosystem services supply in the NW Iberian Peninsula from a functional perspective

In recent years, the assessment of ecosystem services (ES) supply has been based on the use of Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) data as proxies for spatial representation of ecosystems. Nevertheless, some shortcomings of this method, such as uncertainties derived from generalization of the ecosystem types and assumptions of invariance across spatial scales, indicate the need for new approaches. Such approaches could be aimed at improving knowledge of the relationships between ecosystem services and landscape structure and the spatial characteristics of ES patterns. In this study, we propose an integrative approach that involves the generation and analysis of continuous maps representing the supply of five ES potentially related to the amount of biomass. Five remote sensing images of the Northwestern Iberian Peninsula, obtained with Landsat-5 TM, were used to generate a proxy for net primary production by combining the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) of each image to calculate a ΣNDVI index that could act as a potential indicator of some ecosystem services. This information was combined with three variables – terrain slope, population density and occurrence of protected areas – to produce spatial models for the five ES and eventually a series of five supply maps. Food, materials and energy provision services showed a clustered pattern, with high supply values in flat zones and areas with high population densities. In contrast, mass flow and climate regulation services were more widely distributed throughout the study area. The five ecosystem service patterns were analyzed at different scales by two methods: lacunarity and four term local quadrat variance (4TLQV) analysis. These methods revealed differences in the spatial pattern: lacunarity analysis was useful for detection of scale thresholds at the local level, whereas 4TLQV was more sensitive to scale thresholds at larger spatial levels. Thus, the variance analysis yielded higher values for larger windows sizes, particularly for provisioning services. The results demonstrated the suitability of the proposed approach for the spatially explicit modeling of ecosystem services, avoiding the uncertainty of other assessments such as those based on LULC data, and for the exploratory analysis of ES supply from a spatial point of view.     

西南地区生态系统服务供需历史变化与SSP-RCP情景预测

生态系统服务的供需平衡对实现可持续发展至关重要。为了更好地了解过去气候变化和社会经济发展对生态系统服务的影响,并对未来不同气候和社会经济发展情景做出正确响应,有必要对生态系统服务的供需变化进行系统的评估和预测。研究对我国西南地区2000、2010、2015年的水源涵养、食物生产和固碳3项生态系统服务的供给和需求进行了定量的空间评估,然后基于IPCC(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change)提出的社会经济发展和气候变化联合情景框架,即SSP-RCP情景(Shared Socio-economic Pathways-Representative Concentration Pathways),对此3项生态系统服务在未来2035年和2050年的供给和需求进行了SSP1-RCP2.6、SSP2-RCP4.5、SSP4-RCP6.0和SSP5-RCP8.5 4个情景下的预测。结果显示,西南地区水源涵养和固碳服务的供给和需求具有显著的空间不匹配特征,且其需求从2000—2015年分别增长了11.49%和252.41%。根据SSP-RCP情景预测结果,水源...     

Habitat and climate heterogeneity maintain beta-diversity of birds among landscapes within ecoregions

Aim  Habitat and climate heterogeneity may affect patterns of species diversity from the relatively local scale of communities to the broad biogeographical scale of continents. However, the effects of heterogeneity on species diversity have not been studied as widely at intermediate scales although differences among landscapes in local climate and habitat should maintain beta-diversity.
Location  Bailey ecoregions in the USA.
Methods  Using a geographically extensive dataset on bird distribution and abundance in 35 ecoregions, we tested for the effects of habitat and climate heterogeneity on beta-diversity at two discrete spatial scales: among sample points within landscapes, and among landscapes within ecoregions.
Results  Landscape-level beta-diversity typically accounted for 50% or more of gamma-diversity and was significantly and positively related to habitat heterogeneity (elevational range within an ecoregion) and climate heterogeneity (variation in potential evapotranspiration). Contrary to predictions, point-level beta-diversity was negatively related to habitat and climate heterogeneity, perhaps because heterogeneity constrains alpha-diversity at the landscape level. The geographical spatial separation of landscapes within an ecoregion did not significantly affect beta-diversity at either scale.
Main conclusions  Our results suggest that habitat selection and adaptation to local climate may be the primary processes structuring bird diversity among landscapes within ecoregions, and that dispersal limitation has a lesser role in influencing beta-diversity among landscapes.     

“三江并流”区游憩文化生态系统服务评价研究

游憩是一项重要的文化生态系统服务类型。以"三江并流"区为研究区,选择景观多样性、自然度、河流湖泊元素、景点等级、可达性和服务设施等6项指标,从游憩潜力和游憩机会两方面进行评估,得到该地区现有和潜在的游憩文化生态系统服务量,并划分为5个等级。结果表明:游憩潜力与机会共同影响游憩服务量,"三江并流"区游憩潜力与机会在空间分布上并不匹配,游憩潜力较高的地区占17.09%,主要分布于怒江州、大理州、德钦县、丽江古城区及玉龙县的部分区域;10.06%的地区游憩机会极低,主要包括贡山县、德钦县以及香格里拉北部地区;具有高等级潜在游憩服务量的地区,集中分布于大理州、丽江古城区、玉龙县和香格里拉的部分地区,占研究总面积的17.64%。具有较高游憩潜力的景点,大多数现有服务量也比较高。服务量为4级以上的景点数量占44.68%,集中分布在大理州、玉龙县、香格里拉、德钦等地,与高等级潜在游憩服务量的地理分布十分相似,说明现有游憩服务的开发在一定程度上符合自然规律。     

流域环境要素空间尺度特征及其与水生态分区尺度的关系——以辽河流域为例

指标体系构建是流域水生态分区技术框架中的一项重要内容。目前提出的指标体系尚缺乏一定的科学理论支持,如所选指标的生态尺度与各级分区大小之间的对应关系。生态学研究认为,不同尺度上的生态过程和格局不同。以辽河流域为例,对影响水生态系统的几个大尺度环境要素(降水、地形和植被)的空间尺度特征进行分析,得出了各要素空间变异最为显著的尺度。其中,降水的空间尺度约为75 km,地形要素和指标均大致存在16 km、32 km、64 km和128 km多个景观特征尺度。在界定水生态一、二级分区范围基础上,讨论了各环境要素作为水生态一、二级分区指标的适用性,以期为辽河流域水生态分区指标选取提供一定科学依据,同时希望能为其他流域提供一定参考。     

Introducing accessibility analysis in mapping cultural ecosystem services

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the study of the spatial link between service providing areas (SPA) and service benefiting areas (SBA). Understanding the spatial link between SPAs and SBAs is essential when studying the ecosystem service delivery and the fulfilment of ecosystem service demand. However, far too little attention has been paid to the user movement related ecosystem services and where people should be geographically situated in order to benefit from these services. In the movement related services, benefiting areas are equal to providing areas and the spatial link from residential area to SPA is important. The spatial link is addressed through the concept of accessibility which determines the opportunity to move from the area where beneficiaries are located to areas where ecosystem services are produced.This study presents an accessibility approach to the ecosystem services research. Accessibility analyses offer an opportunity to identify the gap between the ecosystems’ potential to produce services and the actual usage possibilities of such services. We demonstrate the suitability of the method by using outdoor recreation and cultural heritage as examples of cultural ecosystem services that people actively want to reach. Accessibility was calculated using a geographical information system-based least-cost path analysis, which measures travel time by car between residential location and the nearest SPA via road network.The examples highlight that accessibility varies according to the ecosystem service and depends mostly on population distribution and travel possibilities. Our results demonstrate that the density of the analysed ecosystem service opportunities is higher near urban areas than elsewhere. The accessibility of different ecosystem services also depends on how much time people are willing to spend for reaching these services. Our study emphasised that, from a population perspective, accessibility analyses provide a powerful tool for illustrating the utilisation possibilities of spatially distributed ecosystem services. The accessibility approach offers great potential to assess the potential use of SPAs and respond to the need to develop a practical tool for ecosystem service research. It effectively shows, for example, the areas where the risk of overuse of ecosystem services is increased. Knowing about the regional differences in ecosystem service usage also gives background information for the decision-makers for drawing conclusions about how much and where it is sensible to invest in the maintenance of ecosystem services.     

Crowdsourcing indicators for cultural ecosystem services: A geographically weighted approach for mountain landscapes

Integrating cultural dimensions into the ecosystem service framework is essential for appraising non-material benefits stemming from different human–environment interactions. This study investigates how the actual provision of cultural services is distributed across the landscape according to spatially varying relationships. The final aim was to analyse how landscape settings are associated to people's preferences and perceptions related to cultural ecosystem services in mountain landscapes. We demonstrated a spatially explicit method based on geo-tagged images from popular social media to assess revealed preferences. A spatially weighted regression showed that specific variables correspond to prominent drivers of cultural ecosystem services at the local scale. The results of this explanatory approach can be used to integrate the cultural service dimension into land planning by taking into account specific benefiting areas and by setting priorities on the ecosystems and landscape characteristics which affect the service supply. We finally concluded that the use of crowdsourced data allows identifying spatial patterns of cultural ecosystem service preferences and their association with landscape settings.     

Landscape drivers of regional variation in the relationship between total phosphorus and chlorophyll in lakes

1. For north temperate lakes, the well‐studied empirical relationship between phosphorus (as measured by total phosphorus, TP), the most commonly limiting nutrient and algal biomass (as measured by chlorophyll a, CHL) has been found to vary across a wide range of landscape settings. Variation in the parameters of these TP–CHL regressions has been attributed to such lake variables as nitrogen/phosphorus ratios, organic carbon and alkalinity, all of which are strongly related to catchment characteristics (e.g. natural land cover and human land use). Although this suggests that landscape setting can help to explain much of the variation in ecoregional TP–CHL regression parameters, few studies have attempted to quantify relationships at an ecoregional spatial scale. 2. We tested the hypothesis that lake algal biomass and its predicted response to changes in phosphorus are related to both local‐scale features (e.g. lake and catchment) and ecoregional‐scale features, all of which affect the availability and transport of covarying solutes such as nitrogen, organic carbon and alkalinity. Specifically, we expected that land use and cover, acting at both local and ecoregional scales, would partially explain the spatial pattern in parameters of the TP–CHL regression. 3. We used a multilevel modelling framework and data from 2105 inland lakes spanning 35 ecoregions in six US states to test our hypothesis and identify specific local and ecoregional features that explain spatial heterogeneity in TP–CHL relationships. We include variables such as lake depth, natural land cover (for instance, wetland cover in the catchment of lakes and in the ecoregions) and human land use (for instance, agricultural land use in the catchment of lakes and in the ecoregions). 4. There was substantial heterogeneity in TP–CHL relationships across the 35 ecoregions. At the local scale, CHL was negatively and positively related to lake mean depth and percentage of wooded wetlands in the catchment, respectively. At the ecoregional scale, the slope parameter was positively related to the percentage of pasture in an ecoregion, indicating that CHL tends to respond more rapidly to changes in TP where there are high levels of agricultural pasture than where there is little. The intercept (i.e. the ecoregion‐average CHL) was negatively related to the percentage of wooded wetlands in the ecoregion. 5. By explicitly accounting for the hierarchical nature of lake–landscape interactions, we quantified the effects of landscape characteristics on the response of CHL to TP at two spatial scales. We provide new insight into ecoregional drivers of the rate at which algal biomass responds to changes in nutrient concentrations. Our results also indicate that the direction and magnitude of the effects of certain land use and cover characteristics on lake nutrient dynamics may be scale dependent and thus likely to represent different underlying mechanisms regulating lake productivity.     

The Importance of Ecoregion Versus Drainage Area on Fish Distributions in the St. Croix River and its Wisconsin Tributaries

Aquatic ecoregions, based on regional landscape features, have been proposed as a model for aquatic resource management. The model assumes the existence of a typical biota associated with a given ecoregion and serves as the basis for biological assessment, reference site designation, and determination of stream potential, based on this biotic assemblage. Contrasting models for predicting stream ecosystem structure focus on the importance of local site conditions, including the regular and predictable changes that occur as a function of area draining to a site. In this study, a classification of 429 stream sites over an area of approximately 20000km² in the St. Croix River basin delineated three major species groups: redhorse/spotfin shiner; brook charr/sculpin; and mixed species. Numerical analyses revealed no relationship between the species communities and ecoregions. In contrast, there was a strong association between the species communities and the area draining to the site. Our study highlights the importance of accommodating the inherent structure associated with site drainage area when imposing a regionally-based ecological classification upon stream ecosystems. This structure is expressed in the systematic changes to the physical habitat that occur with increasing drainage area and are reflected by the species community at the site. Management models that currently incorporate ecoregions in the classification or prediction of stream ecosystem structure would benefit from the inclusion of specific components that incorporate drainage area measurements.now at Environment Protection Authority     

A freshwater ecoregion delineation approach based on freshwater macroinvertebrate community features and spatial environmental data in Taizi River Basin, northeastern China

The ecoregion is currently widely used as the basic geospatial unit in freshwater biodiversity conservation. The popularly used delineation is usually based on the assumption that attributes of aquatic ecosystems are influenced by landscape-scale environmental variables. However, few ecoregion delineations attempt to establish the local validity of this assumption prior to delineation, and few studies check the correspondence of the derived ecoregion boundaries with the distributions of attributes of aquatic biota. In this study, we established an approach to overcome these shortcomings. The notable features of the approach are: (1) the delineation variables were filtered through a series of analytical steps to select those that best represented the aquatic community traits, and which avoided redundancy in the data; (2) the method was quantitative and repeatable; and (3) the derived ecoregion boundaries were checked for consistency with the spatial attributes of aquatic biota. The approach was applied in the Taizi River Basin, northeast China. The procedure proposed here filtered out altitude and annual precipitation as the best variables to include in the freshwater ecoregion delineation. Then, using the quantitative ISODATA classification method, the basin was classified into three ecoregions. A test of accuracy indicated that freshwater ecoregions matched well with the spatial distribution pattern of macroinvertebrate community attributes. Statistical analysis showed that natural geographical attributes and river attributes were different in the three ecoregions, and indices representing macroinvertebrate community attributes are significantly different as a whole among the three ecoregions. The case study proved this approach effective on ecoregion delineation.     

雄安新区多尺度生态安全格局构建框架

维持城市所处的生态系统格局与过程,使得城市生存和发展所依赖的关键生态系统服务实现供需平衡是保障城市生态安全的根本要求和基本前提。因此,城市生态安全不仅是城市本身的问题,还涉及到城市所处的流域、区域、国家等多个不同的空间尺度,具体由支撑城市及其发展的关键生态系统服务所涉及的生态过程所决定。对生态安全概念及研究进展进行了梳理和分析,在此基础上,提出了一个城市生态安全保障的生态系统服务研究框架,将维持城市生态安全的关键生态系统服务需求分为3个层次：一是水资源供给、食物生产、水质净化等城市生存所依赖的基础资源与基本环境维持相关的服务,二是土壤保持、水源涵养、防风固沙、固碳释氧、生物多样性等生态系统稳定和可持续性维持相关的生态系统稳定和调节类服务,三是生态休闲、微气候调节、降尘减噪、文化审美等人居环境与文化类服务。进而利用该框架,从不同需求层次分别对雄安新区生态安全保障的生态系统服务需求进行了分析,结合其自然地理特征和新区建设的社会经济发展情景,从新区城市、大清河流域和京津冀区域三个尺度提出了雄安新区生态安全格局构建框架,以及相应的保障对策和建议,包括从多尺度进行生态环境调控和管理,打破行政和地域边界限制;关注各尺度各关键生态系统服务的过程,加强生态环境要素的监测和预警;重视新区在人居环境改善层次的生态系统服务需求等。     

The Preference and Actual Use of Different Types of Rural Recreation Areas by Urban Dwellers—The Hamburg Case Study

In the wake of urbanisation processes and the constitution of metropolitan regions, the role of the city''s rural surroundings is receiving more attention from researchers and planners as rural areas offer various (cultural) ecosystem services for the urban population. Urban dwellers increasingly desire recreation and landscape experience. Although this need for recreation is generally recognized, few studies have focused on the question of people''s preferences for certain types and characteristics of outdoor recreation areas in relation to the frequency of use. In order to acquire baseline data on this subject, the main objectives of this study were to explore recreation preferences of urban dwellers and the relation between actual use and perceived value of recreation areas in a case study in the Hamburg Metropolitan Region (Germany). In a social survey, Hamburg residents (n = 400) were asked about their preferences and use of four important regional recreation areas with different landscape characteristics in face-to-face interviews in different locations in the city. We found that both outdoor recreation within and outside of the city were fairly or very important for more than 70% of the questioned urban dwellers. Interestingly, the preference for a recreation area outside of the city did not depend on the frequency of use, which indicates that certain recreation areas had a symbolic value besides their use value. When people were questioned on the characteristics of recreation areas, perceived naturalness was found to be strongly related to preference. Respondents considered the diversity, uniqueness, and naturalness of the landscape to be far more important than the accessibility of the recreation areas and the provision of service facilities.     

Hierarchical partitioning of ant diversity: implications for conservation of biogeographical diversity in arid and semi‐arid areas

Aim The scale of observation is important in detecting the spatial variation of biological assemblages, which should be taken into consideration for an appropriate plan of biogeographical conservation. We investigated whether (1) World Wildlife Fund’s ecoregion units are the appropriate scale for conserving ant diversity in Iran, (2) each ecoregion represents a distinct ant community composition and (3) patterns of diversity partitioning differ among four ecoregions. Location Iran, a sampling transect along four arid and semi‐arid ecoregions. Methods We applied hierarchical partitioning to data collected from a nested sampling design including four hierarchical levels: ‘local’, ‘landscape’, ‘ecoregional’ and ‘whole‐region’. Observed alpha and beta diversity components were compared with values of null distributions. Hierarchical cluster analysis was applied to evaluate similarity of ant species composition among ecoregions. Results Partitioning of whole‐region species richness showed that 85% of the species richness was generated by beta diversity among ecoregions and landscapes. The highest value of diversity was generated by beta diversity among ecoregions. Unlike whole‐region partitioning, separate partitioning within each ecoregion revealed that beta component among localities contributed to species richness of each ecoregion. Ecoregions showed different patterns of diversity partitioning. The alpha component contributed largely to the total diversity of two ecoregions, but for two other ecoregions, beta component contributed more than alpha component. Cluster analysis identified four discrete ant species compositions; however, it split landscapes of one ecoregion into two distinct groups. Main conclusions Whole‐region diversity partitioning indicates that ecoregions represent the appropriate scale for conserving ant diversity and that each ecoregion has a distinct ant fauna. However, different conservation strategies should be considered for different ecoregions owing to the differing scales of variation within them. Boundaries of ecoregions remain a subject for further studies. The influence of climate change on ecoregional boundaries should be considered and should be predicted with respect to future conservation maps.     

承灾脆弱性视角下的生态系统服务需求评估及供需空间匹配

生态系统服务供需空间分布格局及匹配关系是生态系统服务领域的热点问题。将生态系统服务聚焦于增强城市系统承受自然灾害的能力和恢复力功能上,引入承灾脆弱性表征生态系统服务需求。选择首批经济特区之一的珠海市为案例研究区,土壤保持服务为供需分析的对象,利用承灾脆弱性评价城市系统及居民的服务需求并刻画需求的空间异质性,采用基于"3S技术"的In VEST模型定量评估服务供给潜力,从流域与镇、街道两种尺度分析生态系统服务供需匹配状况,以期为市级土地利用管理、景观格局优化及城市经济建设提供建议。研究结果表明:根据供需空间匹配状况,珠海市包含高供给高需求、低供给高需求、低供给低需求与高供给低需求四种供需匹配类型。珠海市土壤保持服务供需空间错位状况较为严重,人口密集的城镇区域需求极高但供给严重缺乏,部分生态源地的高供给无法惠及周边区域人口;兼顾经济建设与生态保护的高供给高需求地区仅占全域面积的8.7%;以农业导向且经济发展缓慢的低供给低需求地区分布较广。是对生态系统服务供给与需求的空间异质性刻画及供需空间匹配的重要尝试,为城市建设和生态管理提供参考。     

面向居民生态福祉的国土空间生态网络构建——以临沂市为例

构建面向居民福祉的生态安全体系,统筹考虑生态安全格局中的生态系统要素连通关系和生态系统服务供需关系,是强化国土空间生态修复规划成果,提升居民生态福祉的重要途径。研究基于"源-汇"理论,构建景观生态安全维育网络与生态系统服务亲近网络。结果显示：（1）45%的生态系统服务保护目标是实现高生态系统服务供给和低机会成本的合理阈值,基于此识别的生态供给源地面积为1230.89km²,中心城区及部分主要街道的生态系统服务供需关系呈现高需求-低供给现象;（2）共识别景观生态安全维育廊道75条,其中重要廊道1054km,次重要廊道1154km,一般廊道1366km;（3）生态系统服务亲近廊道分为10个组团,网络化程度低,西北部主要由森林构成,中东部主要由沿河湿地提供服务;（4）构建临沂市"三区两带五廊多组团"的国土空间生态安全格局,在保障景观生态安全的同时有效协调区域生态系统服务供求关系,促进生态-社会协同可持续发展。     

Landscape liveability spatial assessment integrating ecosystem and urban services with their perceived importance by stakeholders

In recent years, landscape liveability has become a leading objective in policy and strategic planning. In the anthropocentric view of landscape, ecosystems fulfil important societal needs similarly to urban systems. Urban systems can meet a variety of such needs through Urban Services, which are historically and typically provided within cities. In this view, Ecosystem Services (ES) and Urban Services (US) influence landscape liveability in a comparable manner, so that liveability assessments based on both ES and US can be effective for landscape planning and policy-making purposes. As liveability is strongly dependent not only on objective landscape features, but also on the subjective perception of stakeholders, their involvement becomes essential for a coherent liveability assessment. The present study aims to develop a LIveability Spatial Assessment Model (LISAM) capable of considering both the local accessibility of services and their perceived relevance as expressed by stakeholders. To this end, a conceptual framework to detangle the spatial relationships between service sources, sinks, and delivery points was developed. From this base, consistent and comparable ES and US indices were calculated using GIS spatialisation techniques and then aggregated hierarchically through a Spatial Multicriteria Decision Making Analysis approach. Results include relevant maps showing explicit spatial indices of liveability that integrate, at various hierarchical levels, the local accessibility of ES and US, along with their local perceived relevance. By calculating complex indices able to highlight both the agri-natural and urban system roles on landscape liveability and by taking subjective and objective aspects into account, the model proved to be effective for spatial decision-making. In future applications, indicator and weight uncertainties should be considered and adequately analysed to assess reliability of the final output. The integration of ecosystem and urban disservices would also be relevant for including those landscape factors that reduce the overall level of place liveability.