The effect of rice-seeding rate and fish stocking on the floodwater ecology of the trench of a concurrent,direct-seeded rice-fish system

Concurrent rice-fish systems in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, are characterized by a rice field surrounded by a trench (on average 1000 m², covering 15–20% of the field surface). Rice is direct seeded and fish are reared in polyculture. The most common species for polyculture are silver barb Barbodes gonionotus (Bleeker), common carp Cyprinus carpio L. and Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (L.). In a 1996–1997 dry season experiment, the effects of (1) absence or presence of a fish polyculture, and (2) two different rice-seeding rates (100 and 300 kg pre-germinated rice per ha) on the trench floodwater ecology were studied. Fish were stocked in six out of twelve rice-fish plots at the Co Do experimental rice-fish station (10° 10 N and 105° 20 E). Silver barb, common carp and Nile tilapia were stocked in polyculture at densities of 3150, 310 and 550 fish/ha, respectively. Several hydrological and biological parameters of the trench floodwater were measured. About 65% of the observed variation in the trench floodwater could be attributed to the fishes stocked and changes in rice-seeding rate. The presence of a fish polyculture increased the water turbidity of the trench floodwater, mainly through suspension of mineral and organic material through fish perturbation. At the lower rice-seeding rate, this resulted in a lower primary production. Photosynthetic activity, dissolved oxygen am and pm showed significant decreases, but only at the lower rice-seeding rate in the presence of fish. Fish polyculture presence resulted in lower ortho-phosphate concentrations, higher phytoplankton communities and higher Protozoa numbers, most probably due to a higher availability of nutrients through fish defecation and perturbation. The rice-seeding rate had a significant impact on pH am, pH pm and temperature pm readings. The survival rate for Nile tilapia and the gross production for Nile tilapia and common carp was higher at the lower rice seeding rate, most probably due to a better aquatic environment of the field. In terms of fish production, the trench floodwater environment was better than the field floodwater. The trench is a very important part of the rice-fish system. It serves as a refuge and supplies reasonable amounts of phytoplankton and zooplankton to the fish.     

Can Fish Control Planthopper and Leafhopper Populations in Intensive Rice Culture?

Planthoppers and leafhoppers are important rice pests. We tried to find out whether a polyculture of silver barb, common carp and Nile tilapia could control hoppers in intensively cropped rice fields. We used the data of five rice-fish experiments conducted between 1995 and 1998 at the Co Do rice-fish research station, Can Tho province, Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Our results showed that the number of Nilaparvata lugens (Stål), Sogatella furcifera (Horváth), Nephotettix virescens (Distant) and Recilia dorsalis (Motschulsky) was the same in fields with and without stocked fish. We concluded that the three stocked fish species are not able to control hopper numbers. Other, predatory fish species might be more effective in hopper control.     

The Effect of Fish on the Abundance of the Rice Caseworm Nymphula depunctalis (Guenee) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Direct Seeded,Concurrent Rice-Fish Fields

In the 1996-97 dry season, a rice caseworm (Nymphula depunctalis (Guenee)) outbreak occurred at the Co Do rice-fish experimental station, Can Tho province, Mekong Delta, Vietnam. A polyculture of Thai silver barb, common carp and Nile tilapia was able to reduce the number of rice caseworm larvae (P< 0.001) by at least 93%. As a result, the number of rice caseworm adults (P< 0.001) and the percentage of damaged rice leaves (P< 0.001) were also reduced compared with rice fields without introduced fish. As the pest reduction did not differ in fields with high and low seeding densities, it was concluded that the access of fish into the rice field was not severely hampered by high rice seeding densities. The presence of fish or rice caseworms had no effect on the rice yield. The broader acceptance of rice-fish culture could lead to a reduction of the number of pesticide sprays used against highly visible defoliators like the rice caseworm. This would enforce the concept that rice-fish culture and integrated pest management are complementary.     

Effect of Stocked Fish on Rice Leaffolder Cnaphalocrocis medinalis and Rice Caseworm Nymphula depunctalis Populations in Intensive Rice Culture

It is often claimed that fish stocked in rice fields have a significant impact on the rice pest population. However, there is little experimental evidence for this. We used the data of six experiments to find out whether a polyculture of silver barb Barbodes gonionotus (Bleeker), common carp Cyprinus carpio (L.) and Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus (L.) has any effect on the population of rice leaffolders Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guenée) and rice caseworms Nymphula depunctalis (Guenée), two common pests in intensively cultured rice fields. Fish had no effect on the rice leaffolder population, but significantly lowered the number of rice caseworm adults and larvae. We concluded that fish have some effect on the arthropod pest population in rice fields, although, most probably, only on sluggish pests living in the water or on the water surface.     

Performance of different fish species for controlling weeds in rainfed lowland rice field

A field experiment was conducted during wet season to evaluate the performance of different fish species for biocontrol of weeds in rainfed waterlogged rice fields with fingerlings of three exotic carps – grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella (Val.) (Cyprinidae, Cypriniformes), silver barb, Puntius gonionotus (Bleeker) (Cyprinidae, Cypriniformes) and common carp, Cyprinus carpio (L.) (Cyprinidae, Cypriniformes) – and three Indian major carps – rohu, Labeo rohita (Ham.) (Cyprinidae, Cypriniformes), catla, Catla catla (Ham.) (Cyprinidae, Cypriniformes), mrigal, Cirrhinus mrigala (Ham.) (Cyprinidae, Cypriniformes). A total of 13 major weeds under the categories of grassy, sedges, broadleaf and aquatic weeds were observed in the rice fields. Grass carp reduced maximum weed biomass (weed control efficiency [WCE] 63% at 60 days after transplanting [DAT] and 62% at 100 DAT) followed by silver barb and common carp. Among the Indian carps, only rohu was effective in control of weeds (WCE, 23% at 60 DAT). The grain yield of rice (variety Varshadhan) slightly increased (4.2–4.5 t/ha), but straw yield was significantly higher (10.2–10.7 t/ha) under rice-fish farming. Fish yield was significantly higher in exotic carps (270–288 kg/ha/90days) due to higher specific growth rates (1.8–2% body weight/day). The study indicated that exotic carps (grass carp, silver barb and common carp in order) were more effective than Indian carps for control of weed in rainfed lowland rice fields and among the Indian carps, rohu showed potential for weed control.     

稻鱼系统中田鱼对资源的利用及对水稻生长的影响

稻田为鱼类等水产生物提供生境,稻田养鱼在提高水稻产量的同时,通过控制病虫害的暴发以及充分利用养分来降低化肥农药的使用.但田鱼对稻田资源的摄食(浮游植物、杂草、浮萍、田螺)及利用后转化成养分对水稻生长发育的促进作用尚缺乏研究.本研究设计了2个田间试验,通过摄像观察稻鱼系统中田鱼的活动,采用稳定性同位素分析田鱼对稻田资源的摄食,并测定水稻的生长发育进程和水稻产量.结果表明: 与鱼单养处理相比,稻田养鱼显著地促进了田鱼的活动频率并扩大了田鱼的活动范围.在稻鱼共作不投喂饲料处理下,稻田中3类水生生物(浮萍、浮游植物、田螺)对田鱼食谱的贡献率分别为22.7%、34.8%和30.0%;而投喂饲料处理下,这3种水生生物对田鱼食谱的贡献率分别为8.9%、5.9% 和1.6%,饲料的贡献率为71.0%.与水稻单作比较,稻鱼共作处理显著增加水稻分蘖期和灌浆期的叶片氮含量,延长分蘖期10~12 d,并显著提高成穗率和产量.表明稻鱼系统通过田鱼摄食稻田资源并转化为水稻可利用养分,促进了水稻生长,实现了水稻产量的提升.     

Larvivorous fishes fail to control mosquitoes in experimental rice plots

The individual and interactive effects of mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis Baird and Girard) and green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus Rafinesque) populations on densities of mosquito immatures and other aquatic fauna were assessed in experimental rice plots over a 12 week period. Mosquitofish, stocked at a much higher rate (2318 per ha) than is usually used in commercial rice fields, increased 88-fold in numbers per minnow trap over a ten week period. Adult green sunfish (7–10 cm TL), stocked at the same rate as mosquitofish, reproduced in the rice plots, but reproductive success was strongly associated with plot depth. Mosquitofish numbers were significantly lower in plots stocked with green sunfish early in the season but this difference soon disappeared. Significant reductions in densities of the immature stages of the mosquito, Culex tarsalis Coquillet, by the fishes were not demonstrated by analyses of variance and covariance (mosquitofish may have provided some control during the very last week [Blaustein, 1990]). Populations of the mosquito, Anopheles freeborni Aitken, were not significantly reduced by mosquitofish except during the last week. A. freeborni populations were significantly higher in the green sunfish treatment than in the control and mosquitofish treatment. Numbers of notonectids (predators of mosquitoes) were depressed in all fish treatments. This may have indirectly contributed to the ineffectiveness of the fishes to control mosquitoes. Other invertebrate predators of mosquitoes were not reduced significantly by the fishes. Similarly, these fishes had little effect on microcrustaceans and chironomids. These fauna, by serving as alternative prey, may have reduced predation intensity on mosquitoes. These results demonstrate that high stocking rates and high population growth of mosquitofish will not necessarily provide control of mosquitoes in rice fields.     

Species diversity and abundance of freshwater fishes in irrigation ditches around rice fields

The relationships between environmental variables, distribution of freshwater fishes and their diet were investigated at 40 sites on irrigation ditches for rice fields in central Japan. Multivariate analyses showed that fish species richness and diversity in ditches was high when fishes were able to easily invade the rice fields. Natural stream beds not covered by concrete had greater total number and biomass of fishes in irrigation ditches. The connection between ditches and rice fields was of secondary importance. Canonical correlation analysis indicated that the two principal fish community variables, abundance and diversity, were respectively represented by the presence of the minnow, Gnathopogon elongatus elongatus, and the absence of the loach, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. Most fishes in the irrigation ditches predominantly preyed upon aquatic insects such as ephemeropteran nymphs, chironomid larvae and trichopteran larvae, but aerial insects and benthic algae were also fed upon by a few species. Small fishes (<4cm SL) preyed more on chironomid and less on trichopteran larvae than large (4cm SL) fishes. The diet overlap between species was extremely high for small fishes in ditches weakly connected with rice fields. The recent changes in rice fields and irrigation ditches to increase production efficiency has led to a decrease in fish diversity. For the coexistence of rice production and fish diversity in rice areas, a new irrigation system, where fishes can easily invade rice fields and where plenty of invertebrates are available for fishes, should be developed.     

Major histocompatibility genes in the Lake Tana African large barb species flock: evidence for complete partitioning of class II B, but not class I, genes among different species

The 16 African large barb fish species of Lake Tana inhabit different ecological niches, exploit different food webs and have different temporal and spatial spawning patterns within the lake. This unique fish species flock is thought to be the result of adaptive radiation within the past 5 million years. Previous analyses of major histocompatibility class II B exon 2 sequences in four Lake Tana African large barb species revealed that these sequences are indeed under selection. No sharing of class II B alleles was observed among the four Lake Tana African large barb species. In this study we analysed the class II B exon 2 sequences of seven additional Lake Tana African large barb species and African large barbs from the Blue Nile and its tributaries. In addition, the presence and variability of major histocompatibility complex class I UA exon 3 sequences in six Lake Tana and Blue Nile African large barb species was analysed. Phylogenetic lineages are maintained by purifying or neutral selection on non-peptide binding regions. Class II B intron 1 and exon 2 sequences were not shared among the different Lake Tana African large barb species or with the riverine barb species. In contrast, identical class I UA exon 3 sequences were found both in the lacustrine and riverine barb species. Our analyses demonstrate complete partitioning of class II B alleles among Lake Tana African large barb species. In contrast, class I alleles remain for the large part shared among species. These different modes of evolution probably reflect the unlinked nature of major histocompatibility genes in teleost fishes.Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article at .An erratum to this article can be found at     

The role of Azolla cover in improving the nitrogen use efficiency of lowland rice

The development of management techniques to improve the poor N use efficiency by lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.) and reduce the high N losses has been an important focus of agronomic research. The potential of an Azolla cover in combination with urea was assessed under field conditions in Laguna, Philippines. Two on-station field experiments were established in the 1998–1999 dry season and eight on-farm experiments per season were carried out in the 2000–2001 wet and dry seasons. Treatment combinations consisting of N levels applied alone or combined with Azolla were evaluated with respect to floodwater chemistry, ¹⁵N recovery, crop growth, and grain yield. A full Azolla cover on the floodwater surface at the time of urea application prevented the rapid and large increase in floodwater pH and floodwater temperature. As a consequence, the partial pressure of ammonia (NH₃), which is an indicator of potential NH₃ volatilization, was significantly depressed. ¹⁵N recovery was higher in plots covered with Azolla where the total ¹⁵N recovery ranged between 77 and 99%, and the aboveground (grain and straw) recovery by rice ranged between 32 and 61%. The tiller count in Azolla-covered plots was significantly increased by 50% more than the uncovered plots at all urea levels. Consequently, the grain yield was likewise improved. Grain yields from the 16 on-farm trials increased by as much as 40% at lower N rates (40 and 50 kg N ha^–1) and by as much as 29% at higher N rates (80 and 100 kg N ha^–1). In addition, response of rice to treatments with lower N rates with an Azolla cover was comparable to that obtained with the higher N rates without a cover. Thus, using Azolla as a surface cover in combination with urea can be an alternative management practice worth considering as a means to reduce NH₃ volatilization losses and improve N use efficiency.     

Ecology of deepwater rice-fields in Bangladesh 5. Mineral composition of the rice plant and other aquatic macrophytes

The mineral composition of deepwater rice (cultivar Kartik Sail) was studied during 1986 in a field near Sonargaon, Bangladesh, which is flooded by water from R. Meghna. Samples were taken four times, once prior to flooding and three times during the flood season. On two of the latter days (10 August = end of first flood peak, 23 September = second flood peak) the study was extended to other components of the ecosystem (sediments + soil, water, other aquatic macrophytes). On 23 September, 32% of the mass of the plant was out of water, 65% in water and 3% in sediment/soil. There were marked differences between elements in their pattern of accumulation by deepwater rice through the season. In comparison with the final totals for each element, about 48% of N, but only 11% of P and 10% of Na had been accumulated by the time the floodwater had arrived. The aquatic roots doubled in mass between the times of the two flood peaks and it is suggested that much of the P taken up by the plant may reach the plant via its aquatic roots after having becoming mobilized and released to the water when sediments become anaerobic. In comparison with other parts of the plant, Na was always much higher in the stem and Zn in the basal roots.Other aquatic macrophytes (weeds) increased from 0.40% of the mass (dry weight) of deepwater rice on 10 August to 4.0% on 23 September. However their content of each element (% dry weight) was considerably higher than that in deepwater rice, so they may at times compete effectively with the rice for nutrients. During the flood period (to 23 September) weeds accumulated 16% of the N accumulated by rice during the same period.     

稻鱼共作对水稻产量效应的Meta分析

定量分析世界范围内稻鱼共作对水稻的产量效应, 为稻鱼共作技术的大面积推广应用提供科学依据。研究搜集了公开发表的102组稻鱼共作与水稻单作处理的水稻产量数据(截至2021年12月31日)。运用Meta分析方法, 明确了稻鱼共作对水稻产量的综合效应, 进而量化分析了时间区域、田间条件、水稻品种、肥药管理、鱼苗投放和投喂管理等对稻鱼共作产量效应的影响。与水稻单作相比, 稻鱼共作显著提高了水稻产量, 平均增产率约为17.2%(95%CI: 9.4%—25.6%), 分析结果可靠。不同区域气候稻鱼共作的产量效应差异显著, 国外和热带气候区域较高。2011年以后年份、田沟布局为一侧、水稻品种为粳稻的试验田中, 稻鱼共作的水稻增产率相对较高; 不同测产方式的产量效应差异不显著。不同肥药管理稻鱼共作的产量效应差异显著, 施肥3次、单一追肥、施用有机肥与无机肥、施药的产量效应较高; 在保障增产效应的前提下可以适当减少肥料农药的施用量, 采用有机肥和不施农药方式以获取经济与环境的双重效益。投苗时间、养殖模式、投苗密度、投喂与否稻鱼共作的产量效应差异显著, 在水稻移栽后21—25d投苗单养, 规格、密度及生物量控制在40 g/尾、1 尾/m2和30 g/m2以内, 不投喂饲料更能发挥稻鱼共作的增产效应。稻鱼共作能够显著提高水稻产量, 是有效利用稻田资源的可行方式。     

Carbon sources and trophic structure in a macrophyte‐dominated polyculture pond assessed by stable‐isotope analysis

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Population development of the mosquitofish,Gambusia affinis,in rice fields

Synopsis Development of mosquitofish,Gambusia affinis, stocks in rice fields following stocking for mosquito control is poorly understood and highly variable. To characterize population development and explain observed variability, size distributions and total numbers of mosquitofish stocks were followed from stocking through the end of the summer rice season in several experimental rice paddies. Instead of the highly variable, logistic growth implied by previous studies in which only adult fish were sampled, we observed a consistent development of size structure between years, with some variability in specific demographic processes. Population development consists of: (1) an initial peak in numbers due to a pulse of recruitment, (2) a period of low recruitment and constant or declining numbers, and (3) a second peak caused by a second pulse of recruitment. Timing of the initial peak appears to depend on rice height. Differences in the rate of decline following the peak are apparently due to different mortality rates. The second peak in reproduction is probably due to a second parturition by stocked females, possibly followed by first reproduction by young born earlier. Since population development in rice fields following stocking in the spring is similar to development of natural populations in temperate regions in which there is no reproduction during the winter, results obtained here are relevant to natural as well as artificially stocked systems.     

Composition and structure of aquatic organism communities in various water conditions of a paddy field

The purpose of this study was to clarify the differences of the community structure and the diversity of aquatic organisms (i) among sampling sites that the distances from inlets or outlets were different each other, and (ii) between the floodwater and the irrigation water during the crop season in a paddy field. The irrigation water was sampled from one inlet. The taxonomical groups and the number of aquatic organisms ranging in size from 30µm to 2cm in the floodwater and the irrigation water were surveyed approximately every 10days during the growth period of the rice plant. Aquatic organisms were classified mainly at the order level. Thirty-eight taxonomical groups of aquatic organisms were found in the floodwater, while 18 groups were found in the irrigation water. We were not able to find the differences of the community structure of aquatic organisms among the sites. In the floodwater, the number of taxonomical group increased and the community structure changed during the late flooding period (over 50days after the onset of flooding) at any site, while those in the irrigation water hardly changed. Although the community structure of aquatic organisms differed between the floodwater and the irrigation water throughout the flooding period, the differences became especially bigger during the late flooding period. Principal component analysis showed that three groups (Pennales, Dinoflagellida, Choreotrichida) characterized the community structure in the irrigation water. Their population densities tended to be the highest at the site near inlets and the lowest at the site far from inlets.     

Fish-zooplankton interactions and their effects on water quality of a tropical Brazilian reservoir

The influence of zooplanktivorous fishes on the plankton community and water quality of Americana Reservoir, Brazil was studied experimentally in 4 floating enclosures during the dry seasons (July–September) of 1982 and 1983. Two enclosures were stocked with adult fish (Astyanax bimaculatus in 1982;A. fasciatus in 1983) at near maximal densities measured in the reservoir upper surface waters (35 m^–2) and two were fish-free during each experiment lasting about one month. Marked differences were evident between the fish and fish-free enclosures after a 2–3 week period in each experiment, particularly with respect to water transparency, phytoplankton biomass, and zooplankton abundance as well as species and size composition. By the end of each experiment water transparencies were lower and phytoplankton biomass higher in the fish enclosures compared to those without fish. Also at that time Rotifera were the prominent zooplankters in the fish enclosures and Cladocera in the fish-free ones. Larger or more conspicuous species of Cladocera asDaphnia gessneri, D. ambigua, andMoina micrura were present in the fish-free enclosures but not in the fish enclosures. The interactions between fish predation, zooplankton grazing, phytoplankton biomass and water quality conditions are discussed in relation to eutrophication of a tropical aquatic ecosystem.     

稻作系统对淡水养殖池塘富营养化的修复效应及应用前景

养殖池塘富营养化是目前制约我国淡水养殖业可持续发展的关键因素。稻作系统具有显著的净化水质能力,如何将稻作系统和淡水养殖系统进行生态耦合实现氮、磷养分的循环利用,是淡水养殖池塘富营养化生态修复的一个重要研究方向。通过文献调研和实地考察,综合分析了浮床种稻-原位修复、稻田湿地-异位修复、稻鱼生态种养3种耦合方式对养殖池塘富营养化的修复效应,以及氮、磷养分综合利用效率,归纳总结了不同模式的技术特点以及应用中存在的问题,并就修复技术研究和生态补偿提出了培育生态修复专用水稻品种,加强稻作系统生态修复理论研究和技术推广,建立养殖池塘富营养化修复的生态补偿机制等建议。     

稻渔综合种养的科学范式

21世纪是渔业的世纪。中国和世界水产业历经数十年的发展为人类应对食品危机做出了巨大贡献。然而,我国传统的水产业对产量的片面追求导致养殖环境日趋恶化,养殖生态系统不断退化,养殖业的可持续发展受到限制。传统稻田其氮素的流失亦是导致农业面源污染的主要原因之一。我国当前的环境问题源于复合生态系统演化进程的缺陷,解决当前的环境问题,必须从优化复合生态系统演化进程着眼。采用优化的生态循环水产养殖模式,如综合水产养殖则可以大大提高氮、磷等养分物质的利用率。稻渔综合种养是一种科学的复合生态模式,可以概括为三种模式,一种是在我国传统稻田养鱼的基础上,逐步发展起来的一种稻渔共生模式,可采取稻鱼、稻蟹、稻虾等多种共作形式;二是稻田作为湿地用于处理水产养殖尾水的模式,属于异位处理形式;三是将稻渔共生和水产养殖相耦合的模式,尤其是与多种水产养殖形式结合或与复合水产养殖系统相结合,甚至是与农牧系统相结合。这第三种稻渔共作模式又称为陆基生态渔场,具有高产、高品质、高生态可持续性等特点,应加强对该创新养殖模式中有机碳、氮、磷等营养收支平衡和循环利用的相关机制以及复合生态系统对外源营养输入的整体响应机制开展研究。概括而言,尾水排放是传统池塘养殖中氮源的主要流失途径,颗粒物吸附沉降是池塘养殖中磷源的主要流失途径,而系统中的碳源则主要是通过鱼类等生物的呼吸作用进行消耗。基于生态循环的"稻渔共生-池塘复合生态系统"则恰好可以解决这三大类营养物质在生态系统中的高效保持和利用问题,实践业已证明该复合系统拥有较高的产量、品质和生态效益,是一种可持续的农业发展模式。稻渔复合生态系统的创新模式因其特有的生态循环机制及系统的高弹性、高缓冲性、高可持续性,将成为我国乃至世界应对农田、渔业生态系统的退化,复合高效解决渔业、农业或农牧业生态环境问题的典型范式。     

Options for mitigating methane emission from a permanently flooded rice field

Permanently flooded rice fields, widely distributed in south and south‐west China, emit more CH₄ than those drained in the winter crop season. For understanding CH₄ emissions from permanently flooded rice fields and developing mitigation options, CH₄ emission was measured year‐round for 6 years from 1995 to 2000, in a permanently flooded rice field in Chongqing, China, where two cultivations with four treatments were prepared as follows: plain‐cultivation, summer rice crop and winter fallow with floodwater layer annually (convention, Ch‐FF), and winter upland crop under drained conditions (Ch‐Wheat); ridge‐cultivation without tillage, summer rice and winter fallow with floodwater layer annually (Ch‐FFR), and winter upland crop under drained conditions (Ch‐RW), respectively. On a 6‐year average, compared to the treatments with floodwater in the winter crop season, the CH₄ flux during rice‐growing period from the treatments draining floodwater and planting winter crop was reduced by 42% in plain‐cultivation and by 13% in ridge‐cultivation (P < 0.05), respectively. The reduction of annual CH₄ emission reached 68 and 48%, respectively. Compared to plain‐cultivation (Ch‐FF), ridge‐cultivation (Ch‐FFR) reduced annual CH₄ emission by 33%, and which was mainly occurred in the winter crop season. These results indicate that draining floodwater layer for winter upland crop growth was not only able to prevent CH₄ emission from permanently flooded paddy soils directly in the winter crop season, but also to reduce CH₄ emission substantially during the following rice‐growing period. As an alternative to the completely drainage of floodwater layer in the winter crop season, ridge‐cultivation could also significantly mitigate CH₄ emissions from permanently flooded rice fields.     

Relations between abundant N-supply and the amino acid concentration of various leaf levels of rice plants

Summary 1. The amino acid concentration of the upper leaves of rice plants without fertilization and supplied with 434 kg ammonium sulphate, per hectare is higher than that of the lower ones. In rice manured with 695 kg per hectare the amino acid concentration in all leaves is almost the same. Great amounts of N tend to level off the differences in free amino acids in the leaves at various insertions.2. The asparagine concentration of the leaves increases parallel with the level of N-nutrition.3. A new ninhydrine and isatin positive amino-acid-like compound was detected atR _f 0,64 which is not a protein constituent. The amount of this substance, denoted as , increased with the increased level of N-nutrition. It was not found in the untreated control. High N-doses result in the appearance of symptoms of P deficiency. The level of N-supply is hardly reflected in the N-concentration of the leaves. On the contrary, it is indicated well by the dry weight and total-N content.