Can a Welfarist Approach be Used to Justify a Moral Duty to Cognitively Enhance Children?

The desire to self‐improve is probably as old as humanity: most of us want to be smarter, more athletic, more beautiful, or more talented. However, in the light of an ever increasing array of possibilities to enhance our capacities, clarity about the purpose and goal of such efforts becomes crucial. This is especially true when decisions are made for children, who are exposed to their parents’ plans and desires for them under a notion of increasing wellbeing. In recent years, cognitive enhancement has become a popular candidate for the promotion of wellbeing; welfarists even impose a moral duty on parents to cognitively enhance their children for the sake of their wellbeing. In this article, I aim to show that welfarists are mistaken in inferring such a moral obligation from the potential benefit of cognitive enhancement. In support of this, I offer three arguments: (a) the vagueness of wellbeing as a theoretical concept means it becomes impossible to apply in practice; (b) the link between cognition and wellbeing is far from unequivocal; and (c) quantification issues with regard to cognition make a duty impossible to discharge. In conclusion, I reject the welfarist approach as a justification for a parental moral obligation to cognitively enhance children.     

Responses to Success: Seeking Pleasant Experiences before a Task Is Complete?

Although engaging in pleasant experiences following successful performance may be hedonically rewarding, in the present research we proposed that individuals might forego pleasant experiences when they have not yet completed a task. In Study 1 (N = 100), participants reported the extent to which they would like to engage in pleasant experiences in a hypothetical situation where their performance outcome on a task (successful vs. average) and task completion (task in progress vs. completed) were manipulated. In Study 2 (N = 115), participants were in a real situation in which they achieved either a successful or average performance outcome. Task completion was manipulated (task in progress vs. completed) and motivation to engage in a pleasant experience was assessed by a behavioral measure. Results of both studies provided support for our prediction by showing individuals to have a lower desire to engage in pleasant experiences following successful, but not average, performance when the task was in progress than when it was complete. These findings are discussed in light of the underlying mechanisms and consequences of the tendency to forego pleasant experiences.     

Breeding without Breeding: Is a Complete Pedigree Necessary for Efficient Breeding?

Complete pedigree information is a prerequisite for modern breeding and the ranking of parents and offspring for selection and deployment decisions. DNA fingerprinting and pedigree reconstruction can substitute for artificial matings, by allowing parentage delineation of naturally produced offspring. Here, we report on the efficacy of a breeding concept called "Breeding without Breeding" (BwB) that circumvents artificial matings, focusing instead on a subset of randomly sampled, maternally known but paternally unknown offspring to delineate their paternal parentage. We then generate the information needed to rank those offspring and their paternal parents, using a combination of complete (full-sib: FS) and incomplete (half-sib: HS) analyses of the constructed pedigrees. Using a random sample of wind-pollinated offspring from 15 females (seed donors), growing in a 41-parent western larch population, BwB is evaluated and compared to two commonly used testing methods that rely on either incomplete (maternal half-sib, open-pollinated: OP) or complete (FS) pedigree designs. BwB produced results superior to those from the incomplete design and virtually identical to those from the complete pedigree methods. The combined use of complete and incomplete pedigree information permitted evaluating all parents, both maternal and paternal, as well as all offspring, a result that could not have been accomplished with either the OP or FS methods alone. We also discuss the optimum experimental setting, in terms of the proportion of fingerprinted offspring, the size of the assembled maternal and paternal half-sib families, the role of external gene flow, and selfing, as well as the number of parents that could be realistically tested with BwB.     

LIMS — a catalyst for re-engineering

This paper describes how a laboratory information management system (LIMS) can act as a catalyst for re-engineering. Some of the key issues of successful change management are described and the common pitfalls that LIMS projects can fall into are summarised.     

3D-Printed Drugs for Children—Are We Ready Yet?

The first medicine manufactured by three-dimensional (3D) printing was recently approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The advantages of printing as a manufacturing route enabling more flexibility regarding the dose, and enlarging individual treatment options, have been demonstrated. There is a particular need for flexible drug delivery solutions when it comes to children. Printing as a new pharmaceutical manufacturing technology brings manufacturing closer to the patient and can easily be adjusted to the required dosing scheme, offering more flexibility for treatments. Printing of medicine may therefore become the manufacturing route of choice to provide tailored and potentially on-demand treatments for patients with individual needs. This paper intends to summarize and discuss the state of the art, the crucial aspects which should be taken into account, and the still-open questions, in order to make 3D printing a suitable manufacturing route for pediatric drugs.     

Influenza A virus—a model for viral antigen presentation to cytotoxic T lymphocytes

Human influenza A virus is characterized by its high degree of variability and by its ability to cause frequent epidemics of disease. Most of the variation occurs in the two surface glycoproteins of the virus, against which protective antibodies are directed. In contrast, the strong MHC class I-restricted CTL response to infection with virus is predominantly specific for internal viral proteins which are relatively well conserved, and is cross-reactive between different strains of influenza A virus. However, the natural evolution of influenza viruses is largely driven by selection with antibody, with no firm evidence of selection by CTL. In normal individuals influenza virus produces an acute, localized infection, and this in part may reflect an inability to escape the CTL response.     

European Paediatric Formulation Initiative (EuPFI)—Formulating Ideas for Better Medicines for Children

The European Paediatric Formulation Initiative (EuPFI), founded in 2007, aims to promote and facilitate the preparation of better and safe medicines for children through linking research and information dissemination. It brings together the capabilities of the industry, academics, hospitals, and regulators within a common platform in order to scope the solid understanding of the major issues, which will underpin the progress towards the future of paediatric medicines we want.The EuPFI was formed in parallel to the adoption of regulations within the EU and USA and has served as a community that drives research and dissemination through publications and the organisation of annual conferences. The membership and reach of this group have grown since its inception in 2007 and continue to develop and evolve to meet the continuing needs and ambitions of research into and development of age appropriate medicines. Five diverse workstreams (age-appropriate medicines, Biopharmaceutics, Administration Devices, Excipients and Taste Assessment & Taste Masking (TATM)) direct specific workpackages on behalf of the EuPFI. Furthermore, EuPFI interacts with multiple diverse professional groups across the globe to ensure efficient working in the area of paediatric medicines. Strong commitment and active involvement of all EuPFI stakeholders have proved to be vital to effectively address knowledge gaps related to paediatric medicines, discuss potential areas for further research and identify issues that need more attention and analysis in the future.     

Mycobacterial disease—a challenge to biotechnology

Summary The two principal mycobacterial diseases — tuberculosis and leprosy — remain major causes of human suffering in many parts of the world. The struggle against these diseases has been hampered by the inadequacy of methods for their diagnosis, prevention and therapy. Improvements in diagnostic methods, especially for tuberculosis, are required as existing bacteriological techniques are time consuming and insensitive, but immunological tests suffer from a lack of specificity and a failure to distinguish active disease from past sensitization. Tests are required that will either detect the presence of mycobacterial antigens or the occurrence of immune reactions specific to active infection. Prophylaxis by BCG vaccine is never complete and in some regions appears virtually ineffective. In order to determine the reason for this variation, to produce better vaccines, and to use BCG more effectively, a deeper understanding of the immune reactions in mycobacterial disease is required. In particular, the bacterial determinants of virulence and protection and the mode of action of BCG require detailed study. The therapy of tuberculosis and, to a lesser extent, leprosy has undergone an extensive transformation since the introduction of rifampicin. Nevertheless the cost of modern short course regimens for tuberculosis limit their application. Even shorter regimens, made possible by more potent bactericidal drugs or by agents that stimulate the host's defences are thus required. Recent advances in biotechnology could therefore lead to significant advances in the control of these diseases but only if they are integrated into local, self-reliant public health initiatives.

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Enfermedades producidas por microbacterias. Un desafío a la biotecnologia

Resumen La dos principales enfermedades producidas por micobacterias — tuberculosis y lepra —persisten como las causas más importantes del sufrimiento humano en muchas partes del mundo. La lucha contra estas enfermedades se ha visto dificultada por lo inadecuado de los métodos para su diagnosis, prevención y terapia. Es necesaria una mejora de los métodos de diagnosis, especialmente en el caso de la tuberculosis, ya que las técnicas bacteriológicas existentes son poco sensibles y consumen mucho tiempo y los tests inmunológicos son inespecíficos y no permiten distinguir entre la enfermedad activa y la sensibilidad adquirida. Se necesitan tests capaces de detectar la presencia de antígenos microbacterianos o la existencia de reacciones de inmunización específicas de la infección activa. La profilaxis con la vacuna BCG no es nunca completa y en algunas regiones es virtualmente enefectiva. Con objeto de determinar las razones de esta variación, de producir mejores vacunas y de usar la BCG de forma más eficiente, se necesita entender con más profundidad las reacciones de inmunización en las enfermedades por micobacterias. En particular los determinantes bacterianos de la virulencia y de la protección y la forma de actuar de la BCG precisan de un estudio detallado. La terapia de la tuberculosis y en menor grado la de la lepra, han sufrido una extensa transformación desde la introducción de la rifampicina. Sin embargo, el costo de los modernos tratamientos a corto plazo de la tuberculosis limítan su aplicación. Se requieren tratamientos aún más cortos basados en el desarrollo de drogas bactericidas más potentes o de agentes que estimulen las defensas del enfermo. Los recientes avances en biotecnología podrían por tanto conducir a avances importantes en el control de estas enfermedades pero solamente si se integran en iniciativas médicas públicas consistentes.

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Les maladies à mycobactéries — Un enjeu pour les biotechnologies

Résumé Les deux principales maladies à mycobactéries — la tuberculose et la lèpre — sont toujours des causes majeures de souffrance humaine dans de nombreuses parties du monde. La lutte contre ces maladies est entravée par l'inadéquation des méthodes diagnostiques, préventives et thérapeutiques. Spéciallement en ce qui concerne la tuberculose, l'amélioration des moyens de diagnostic est rendue nécessaire par le fait que les techniques bactériologiques existantes sont longues et peu sensibles, et que les tests immunologiques, n'étant pas spécifiques, ne permettent pas de distinguer entre une maladie en évolution et une sensibilisation ancienne. On a besoin de tests permettant de déceler soit la présence d'antigènes mycobactériens, soit l'apparition de réactions immunitaires spécifiques au cours d'une infection évolutive. La prophylaxie par le BCG n'est jamais complète et parait être pratiquement inefficace dans certaines régions. Pour expliquer cette variation géographique, produire de meilleurs vaccins, et utiliser le BCG efficacement, il convient de mieux connaître les réactions immunitaires au cours des maladies à mycobactéries. En particulier, les déterminants bactériens de la virulence et de la protection, ainsi que le mode d'action du BCG sont à approfondir. La rifampicine a considérablement transformé la thérapeutique de la tuberculose et, à un moindre degré, de la lèpre. Néanmoins, le coût des nouveaux traitements intensifs de la tuberculose limite leur application. Il est nécessaire que des médicaments bactéricides plus puissants ou des agents stimulant les défenses de l'hôte puissent raccourcir encore davantage la durée des traitements. Le progrès biotechnologique peut donc améliorer de façon significative le contrôle des maladies considérées, à la seule condition que ce but soit volontairement intégré dans les initiatives locales en matière de santé publique.

     

Glucose—a sweet way to die

TRAIL, a putative anticancer cytokine, induces extrinsic cell death by activating the caspase cascade directly (Type I cells) via the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC) or indirectly (Type II cells) by caspase-8 cleavage of Bid and activation of the mitochondrial cell death pathway. Cancer cells are characterized by their dependence on aerobic glycolysis, which, although inefficient in terms of ATP production, facilitates tumor metabolism. Our studies show that TRAIL-induced cell death is significantly affected by the metabolic status of the cell. Inhibiting glycolysis with 2-deoxyglucose potentiates TRAIL-induced cell death, whereas glucose deprivation can paradoxically inhibit apoptosis. These conflicting responses to glycolysis inhibition are modulated by the balance between the Akt and AMPK pathways and their subsequent downstream regulation of mTORC1. This results in marked changes in protein translation, in which the equilibrium between anti- and pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member proteins is decided by their individual degradation rates. This regulates the mitochondrial cell death pathway and alters its sensitivity not only to TRAIL, but to ABT-737, a Bcl-2 inhibitor. Taken together, our studies show that the sensitivity of cancer cells to apoptosis can be modulated by targeting their unique metabolism in order to enhance sensitivity to apoptotic agents.     

The Series Solution for a Class of Nonstationary Biological Population Systems and Their Stability

1IntroductionInaStableenjoinment,thegeneral~populationSystemcanbeexpr~asfollows(see[1,21)In[2,3],wedi~theP~ofationforaStatiomppopulationsyStem,theanduniquenessOfthesolutionforanonStatio~populationsystemwereP~.InthiSPaper,wediscusstheseriessolutionOf~tO~adulationSyStem,wedefinethecriticsproliferationrate,anddiscussthestabilityOftheSySt~.InSyStem(1),p(r,t)iscalledpopulationdenSi.tyfUnCtionOfagerandtimet,p,(r)isaninitialdistribution,8(t)istheprDliferationrate,p(r)isanincreasingfUnction(…     

A New Method for Cladistic Analysis—Median Elimination Series (MES)

The use of parsimony (or the principle of simplicity) in phylogenetic inference is reviewed. The major problem in using parsimony for phylogenetic reconstruction is that neither a single solution for a given set of data nor the most parsimonious tree could be provided. Therefore, based on recognition and judgement of similarity of organisms by Hennig's advanced character (1965) and some particular principles from evolutionary theory of Darwinism accepted by many systematists as general truths (Bonde 1977; Wiley 1975; Gaffrey 1979), the author has developed a new method, Elimination Series through Median Selection (Median Elimination Series, MES for short), for phylogenetic analysis. In addition to using the advanced characters for understanding the relationships between taxa, MES emphasizes that the mosaic characters including both primitive and advanced in an array of characters play an important part in determining the nodes or branches and distinguishing the taxa.The author considers median units as ancestors in a phylogenetic tree like Farris, but the concept and algorithm of “median” differ from Farris' (1970) in: (1) The author's median involves the top taxon and unplaced one, but Farris' median does the top taxon, its ancestor as well as unplaced one; (2) The median taken by the author is of common value or the least one among the associated characters of two taxa. However, the median taken by Farris is median numerical value among the three (3) The median or median unit called by the author is the numerical value of the relatively primitive character or taxon between the advanced characters or the taxa stood apart from the original position. Farris' one is the median position or number in the center of three taxa or its associated characters. The author recognizes that reversion of characters is possible and obtains the knowledge of it from observation and analysis of characters of organisms or scientific experiment and distinguished through analysis of morphocline and co-variation in a series of taxa, but not from induction only by mathematical model based on the principle of simplicity. The author divides co-variation into 4 types: 1. Progressive co-variation. Transformation series of characters A and a is as follows: A → A' a → a' reversed co-variation. Transformation series of characters A and a is as follows: A ← A' a ← a' 3. Progression-reversion co-variation. Transformation series of characters A and a is follows: A → A' a ← a' 4. Reversion-progression co-variation. Transformation series of characters A and a is as follows: A ← A' a → a' The characters next to the arrows should be advanced. Co-variation for most of the species of Cissus from China belongs to the type 1 and that for C. repanda Vahl. to the type 3, without types 2 and 4. In determining the progressive co-variation, reverse evolution of character could be distinguished through the analysis of morphocline and co-variation. The author has recognized two types of cyclic polarity, including unidirectional and bidirectional ones. For the former, the character may return back to the original state through more than one step. In fact, this is a complex reversion. For the latter, the character may reach a advanced state from the original one via two different ways. In fact, this is special progressive transformation series and it may often occur in complex reticulate evolution as a small net, for example, in evolution of leaf fragment and others of angiosperms (Meyen 1973). The cyclic polarity in C. repanda Vahl. is bidirectional (see transformation series 11 of the characters in Cissus). Transformation series of All the characters have been determined on the basis of analysis of morphocline, co-variation and cyclic polarity. In this paper, the three steps of understanding phylogenetic system are developed: (1) recognition of homologous characters; (2) discovery of internal relationships between homologous characters in order to obtain transformation series or phylogeny of homologous characters; (3) discovery of internal relationships between phylogenies of homologous characters in order to get a phylogenetic system of organisms or approaching understanding essence of evolution. The result inferred by MES is based on some principles of evolution from Darwin and Hennig but not judged by the principle of simplicity or parsimony from Popper (1960, 1968). The statement in this paper attempts to show that if a dilemma in modern cladistics could be solved, its principles must be reconsidered. Decontaminated thianthrene disproportion. 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Vitellogenin levels in mussel hemolymph—a suitable biomarker for the exposure to estrogens?

Increased vitellogenin (vtg) levels in the blood of male fish are frequently used as an indicator of estrogenic exposure. Similar responses are expected for mussels, where the concentration of vtg-like proteins has been reported to depend on estrogens. To verify the role of hemolymph during vitellogenesis of mussels, the saltwater mussel Mytilus edulis and the freshwater mussel Anodonta cygnea were exposed to 17beta-estradiol (E2) and wastewater treatment plant effluents, known for their estrogenic potential. Gel electrophoresis did not reveal any significant induction (or repression) of plasma proteins compared to control plasma. Our results do not support the hypothesis that mussel hemolymph is a carrier of estrogen-dependent major egg-yolk precursors (vtg-like proteins). However, additional information on a 35+/-2-kDa hemolymph protein, previously reported to bind heavy metals, was obtained by high-resolution two-dimensional electrophoresis. It was resolved in a cluster of single proteins with properties that match the characteristics of a previously reported histidine-rich glycoprotein.     

Is Rural Residency a Risk Factor for Overweight and Obesity for U.S. Children?

Objective: Despite studies suggesting that there is a higher prevalence of overweight or obese children in rural areas in the U.S., there are no national studies comparing the prevalence levels of overweight or obese rural to metropolitan children. The objective of this research was to examine the hypothesis that living in a rural area is a risk factor for children being overweight or obese. Research Methods and Procedures: Using the National Survey of Children's Heath, the prevalence of overweight and/or obese rural children was compared with that of children in metropolitan settings. Multivariate analyses were performed on the data to detect if differences varied by health services use factors or demographic factors, such as household income, gender, and race. Results: Multivariate analysis revealed that overweight or obese children ≥5 years of age were more likely to live in rural rather than metropolitan areas (odds ratio = 1.252; 95% confidence interval, 1.248, 1.256). Rural overweight U.S. children ≥5 years of age of age were more likely than their metropolitan counterparts to: be white, live in households ≤200% of the federal poverty level, have no health insurance, have not received preventive health care in the past 12 months, be female, use a computer for non‐school work >3 hours a day, and watch television for >3 hours a day. In addition, they were more likely to have comorbidities. Discussion: Living in rural areas is a risk factor for children being overweight or obese.     

Robot-Mediated Interviews - How Effective Is a Humanoid Robot as a Tool for Interviewing Young Children?

Robots have been used in a variety of education, therapy or entertainment contexts. This paper introduces the novel application of using humanoid robots for robot-mediated interviews. An experimental study examines how children’s responses towards the humanoid robot KASPAR in an interview context differ in comparison to their interaction with a human in a similar setting. Twenty-one children aged between 7 and 9 took part in this study. Each child participated in two interviews, one with an adult and one with a humanoid robot. Measures include the behavioural coding of the children’s behaviour during the interviews and questionnaire data. The questions in these interviews focused on a special event that had recently taken place in the school. The results reveal that the children interacted with KASPAR very similar to how they interacted with a human interviewer. The quantitative behaviour analysis reveal that the most notable difference between the interviews with KASPAR and the human were the duration of the interviews, the eye gaze directed towards the different interviewers, and the response time of the interviewers. These results are discussed in light of future work towards developing KASPAR as an ‘interviewer’ for young children in application areas where a robot may have advantages over a human interviewer, e.g. in police, social services, or healthcare applications.     

Spirula—a window to the embryonic development of ammonoids? Morphological and molecular indications for a palaeontological hypothesis

Nautilus is not suitable as a model organism to infer biological functions, embryonic development, or mode of life in ammonoids. A brief review of the available morphological data is given and molecular data are added to discuss the usefulness of Spirula as a biological proxy for ammonoids. Indeed, there are many morphological hints indicating that Spirula could be a useful model organism for approaching the embryonic development of ammonoids. The molecular data seem to support this hypothesis. However, a universal model character of Spirula cannot be detected as, e.g., the mode of feeding probably differs between Spirula and ammonoids.