CELL CYCLE-SPECIFIC CHANGES IN HISTONE PHOSPHORYLATION ASSOCIATED WITH CELL PROLIFERATION AND CHROMOSOME CONDENSATION

Preparative polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was used to examine histone phosphorylation in synchronized Chinese hamster cells (line CHO). Results showed that histone f1 phosphorylation, absent in G₁-arrested and early G₁-traversing cells, commences 2 h before entry of traversing cells into the S phase. It is concluded that f1 phosphorylation is one of the earliest biochemical events associated with conversion of nonproliferating cells to proliferating cells occurring on old f1 before synthesis of new f1 during the S phase. Results also showed that f3 and a subfraction of f1 were rapidly phosphorylated only during the time when cells were crossing the G₂/M boundary and traversing prophase. Since these phosphorylation events do not occur in G₁, S, or G₂ and are reduced greatly in metaphase, it is concluded that these two specific phosphorylation events are involved with condensation of interphase chromatin into mitotic chromosomes. This conclusion is supported by loss of prelabeled ³²PO₄ from those specific histone fractions during transition of metaphase cells into interphase G₁ cells. A model of the relationship of histone phosphorylation to the cell cycle is presented which suggests involvement of f1 phosphorylation in chromatin structural changes associated with a continuous interphase "chromosome cycle" which culminates at mitosis with an f3 and f1 phosphorylation-mediated chromosome condensation.     

Change of chromatin morphology during the cell cycle detected by means of automated image analysis

Mouse embryo fibroblasts growing asynchronously in vitro stained with Feulgen method and their nuclear chromatin was analysed by means of the image analysing computer Quantimet 720D. Cells with 2C, 3C and 4C content of DNA were considered as being in G₁, middle S and G₂ phase of cell cycle, respectively. It was found that the projected area of nuclei increases during the cell cycle and that the mean optical density of chromatin increases from G₁ through S to G₂ phase. The curves showing the areas of chromatin at different optical density thresholds are different for cells in G₁, S and G₂ phase. The results demonstrate cyclic changes in chromatin morphology in the interphase nuclei during the cell cycle.     

草鱼染色体的包装（间期—中期）

以草鱼ＺＣ７９０１细胞株为材料,观察鱼类细胞从间期染色质到中期染色体的包装过程。主要通过（１）分裂期与间期细胞融合,诱导染色体早熟凝集;（２）染色体“伸长”处理;（３）培养细胞的低渗处理;（４）染色质辅展等方法,制作染色体标本,进行扫描和透射电镜观察。观察表明,鱼类染色质的基本结构与哺乳类细胞相同,也是直径约１０ｎｍ的核丝。染色体的色装有两种形式：一种是多级螺旋化形成直径约３００ｎｍ的染色单体,     

Cell cycle-dependent chromatin shuttling of HBO1–JADE1 histone acetyl transferase (HAT) complex

HAT HBO1 interacts with 2 isoforms of JADE1: JADE1S and JADE1L. JADE1 promotes acetylation of nucleosomal histones by HBO1. HBO1–JADE1 complex facilitates cell proliferation by unclear mechanisms. Here we report intracellular chromatin shuttling of HBO1–JADE1 complex during mitosis coupled to phosphorylation of JADE1. In interphase of dividing cells JADE1S was localized to the nucleus and associated with chromatin. As cells approached mitosis, specifically prophase, JADE1S dissociated from chromatin and associated with cytoplasm. JADE1S chromatin re-association began in telophase and paralleled nuclear envelope membrane reassembly. By early G₁, JADE1S was re-associated with chromatin and localized to the nucleus. Importantly, cytoplasmic but not chromatin-associated JADE1 protein was phosphorylated. Mass-Spectrometric analysis of JADE1S protein isolated from G₂/M-arrested cells identified 6 phosphorylated amino acid residues: S89, T92, S102, S121, S392, and T468, including 3 novel sites. Temporally, JADE1S phosphorylation and dephosphorylation during mitosis correlated with JADE1S chromatin dissociation and recruitment. JADE1S chromatin recruitment was accompanied by the global histone H4 acetylation. Pharmacological inhibitor of Aurora A kinase prevented JADE1S protein band shift and chromatin dissociation, suggesting regulatory function for phosphorylation. In vivo experiments supported our in vitro results. In mouse kidneys, JADE1S transiently accumulated in the cytoplasm of tubular epithelial cells during kidney regeneration. The transient increase in the number of cells with cytoplasmic JADE1S directly correlated with activation of tubular cell proliferation and inversely correlated with the number of cells with nuclear JADE1S staining, supporting biological role of HBO1–JADE1 shuttling during organ regeneration.     

Coiled Supercoiled DNA in Critical Point Dried and Thin Sectioned Human Chromosome Fibres

SUPERCOILING of the DNA double helix in the deoxynucleo-histone fibril (100 Â in diameter with a pitch of 120 Â) has been well documented by X-ray diffraction^1–3. The main structural element of eukaryotic metaphase chromosomes and inactive interphase chromatin, however, is a long, irregularly folded fibre, 200 to 300 Â in diameter, as electron microscopy has shown^4–10. The arrangement of DNA within this fibre has not yet been established clearly. I wish to present electron micrographs of critical point dried and thin sectioned fibres of human metaphase chromosomes, which demonstrate more or less regularly distributed electron densities which could be explained by supercoiling of the 100 Â deoxynucleohistone fibril.     

DNAase I and cellular factors that affect chromatin structure

The use of DNAase I as a probe of chromatin structure is frequently fraught with problems of irreproducibility. We have recently evaluated this procedure, documented the sources of the problems, and standardized the method for reproducible results (Prentice and Gurley (1983) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 740, 134–144). We have now used this probe to detect differences in chromatin structure between cells blocked (1) in G₁ phase by isoleucine deprivation, or (2) in early S phase by sequential use of isoleucine deprivation followed by release into the presence of hydroxyurea. The cells blocked in G₁ phase have easily-digestible chromatin, while cells blocked in early S phase have chromatin which is much more resistant to DNAase I. These differences were found to be the result of diffusible factors found in the cytoplasm and nuclei of G₁- and S-phase cells, respectively. The G₁ cells contained a cytoplasmic factor which modulates the chromatin structure of S-phase nuclei to a more easily digestible state, while cells blocked in S phase contain a nuclear factor which modulates the chromatin structure of G₁ nuclei to a state more resistant to digestion. DNAase I is much more sensitive to these cell cycle-specific chromatin changes than is micrococcal nuclease. The results indicate that, under controlled conditions, DNAase I should be a valuable probe for detecting chromatin structural changes associated with cell cycle traverse, differentiation, development, hormone action and chemical toxicity.     

Unusual Centrosome Cycle in Dictyostelium: Correlation of Dynamic Behavior and Structural Changes

Centrosome duplication and separation are of central importance for cell division. Here we provide a detailed account of this dynamic process in Dictyostelium. Centrosome behavior was monitored in living cells using a γ-tubulin–green fluorescent protein construct and correlated with morphological changes at the ultrastructural level. All aspects of the duplication and separation process of this centrosome are unusual when compared with, e.g., vertebrate cells. In interphase the Dictyostelium centrosome is a box-shaped structure comprised of three major layers, surrounded by an amorphous corona from which microtubules emerge. Structural duplication takes place during prophase, as opposed to G₁/S in vertebrate cells. The three layers of the box-shaped core structure increase in size. The surrounding corona is lost, an event accompanied by a decrease in signal intensity of γ-tubulin–green fluorescent protein at the centrosome and the breakdown of the interphase microtubule system. At the prophase/prometaphase transition the separation into two mitotic centrosomes takes place via an intriguing lengthwise splitting process where the two outer layers of the prophase centrosome peel away from each other and become the mitotic centrosomes. Spindle microtubules are now nucleated from surfaces that previously were buried inside the interphase centrosome. Finally, at the end of telophase, the mitotic centrosomes fold in such a way that the microtubule-nucleating surface remains on the outside of the organelle. Thus in each cell cycle the centrosome undergoes an apparent inside-out/outside-in reversal of its layered structure.     

Open and closed domains in the mouse genome are configured as 10‐nm chromatin fibres

The mammalian genome is compacted to fit within the confines of the cell nucleus. DNA is wrapped around nucleosomes, forming the classic ‘beads‐on‐a‐string’ 10‐nm chromatin fibre. Ten‐nanometre chromatin fibres are thought to condense into 30‐nm fibres. This structural reorganization is widely assumed to correspond to transitions between active and repressed chromatin, thereby representing a chief regulatory event. Here, by combining electron spectroscopic imaging with tomography, three‐dimensional images are generated, revealing that both open and closed chromatin domains in mouse somatic cells comprise 10‐nm fibres. These findings indicate that the 30‐nm chromatin model does not reflect the true regulatory structure in vivo.     

Ultrastructure of the nuclei during different phases of the cell cycle in the antheridial filaments ofChara vulgaris L.

Summary Synchronously dividing nuclei of the antheridial filaments ofChara vulgaris at the 32-celled stage have different structure depending on the period of interphase.During S phase which begins as early as at the start of telophase (coincidently with the nuclear envelope formation and chromosome decondensation) one can observe a gradual reduction in the content of condensed chromatin, having the appearance of an indistinct network. During the middle S period the area of condensed chromatin decreases to the lowest level of about 29% of nuclear profile and the nuclear envelope becomes folded. At the end of S phase the condensed chromatin forms a more distinct and thicker reticulum which covers an area of about 52%.During the early G₂ phase, the area occupied by the condensed chromatin was about 41% and it was found to assume the shape of large and iregular clusters localized mainly near the nucleoli. The reticulate form of chromatin, characteristic of the S period, disappears almost completely. During the next period of interphase the condensed chromatin disperses considerably and covers now 24% of the area. At the end of the G₂ phase the condensed chromatin reappears and transforms into chromosomes. Then the condensed chromatin removes from the nuclear envelope.This work was supported by the Polish Academy of Sciences within the project 09.7.3.1.4.     

An electron microscopic study of mitosis in mouse duodenal crypt cells confirms that the prophasic condensation of chromatin begins during the DNA-synthesizing (S) stage of the cycle

The phases of mitosis were examined in the columnar cells at the base of duodenal crypts in adult male mice given an intravenous injection of 3H-thymidine and sacrificed 20 min later. The duodenum was fixed by immersion into glutaraldehyde-formaldehyde, and the cells were examined in the electron microscope, with or without processing for radioautography. Interphase nuclei are characterized by the distribution of chromatin; aside from the cortical chromatin spread along nuclear envelope and nucleolus, there are chromatin accumulations that belong mainly in two different classes: 1) numerous chromatin "specks" ranging in size from about 5 to 70 nm and averaging 47 nm; 2) a few roughly circular or elongated chromatin "packets" measuring from 70 to 230 nm. Early prophase nuclei differ mainly by a large increase in the number of chromatin packets to 20-30 or more per nuclear profile; their average diameter is 128 nm. During mid-prophase, the chromatin packets enlarge gradually to an average 221 nm diameter. Between mid- and late prophase, there is a further increase in diameter to 679 nm. At metaphase, the packets take on the appearance of mature chromosomes, and their diameter increases to 767 nm. At anaphase, daughter chromosomes migrate to each pole, where they fuse into a compact chromatin mass. At telophase, nucleoplasmic areas progressively enlarge within the chromatin mass and separate strands of chromatin, which gradually become segmented into chromatin clumps. Counts of mitotic cells show a high proportion of prophase and telophase nuclei. Calculation from the counts yields the duration of the phases, that is, 5.6, 0.2, 0.1, and 1.6 hr, respectively, for pro-, meta-, ana-, and telophase. Finally, radioautography 20 min after 3H-thymidine injection shows labeling in 54% of the interphase nuclei, 85% of early prophase nuclei, and 73% of mid-prophase nuclei, while there is no label in late prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase nuclei. In confirmation of previous light microscopic work, the S stage of the cycle begins when a cell is in interphase and continues through the early prophase and part of mid-prophase. Moreover, the main sites of DNA synthesis are the chromatin specks during interphase and the cortical chromatin during early and mid-prophase. The chromosome condensation taking place in the meantime may be separated into two main steps: 1) a slow, moderate condensation of the chromatin packets during early and mid-prophase and 2) a rapid, pronounced one during late prophase and prometaphase when the packets become chromosomes.     

Changes in the phosphorylation of non-histone chromatin proteins during the cell cycle of HeLa S 3 cells

The phosphorylation of non-histone chromatin proteins in synchronized HeLa S₃ cells was studied in 5 phases of the cell cycle: mitosis, G₁, early and late S, and G₂. The rate of non-histone chromatin protein phosphorylation was found to be maximal during G₁ and G₂, somewhat decreased during S phase, and almost 90% depressed during mitosis. Analysis of the phosphorylated non-histone chromatin proteins by SDS-acrylamide gel electrophoresis showed a heterogeneous pattern of phosphorylation as measured by labeling with ³²P. Significant variations in the labeling pattern were seen during different stages of the cell cycle, and particular unique species appeared to be phosphorylated selectively during certain stages of the cycle.     

Reorganization and condensation of chromatin in mitotic prophase nuclei of Allium cepa

This paper studies the process and features of chromosome construction in mitotic prophase cells of Allium cepa. The results showed that a prominent reorganization of chromatin occurred during G₂-early prophase. The 250–400 nm thick compact chromatin threads in G₂ nuclei began to disorganize into about 30, 100 and 220 nm chromatin fibres which constituted the loosely organized chromosome outlines in early prophase before chromosome condensation. In middle prophase, chromosome condensation was characterized by the formation of many condensed regions (aggregates of chromatin), which increased in size (1–1.5 m) when prophase proceeded. Meanwhile, the chromatin threads that constituted and connected the condensed regions became increasingly thicker (120–250 nm). In late prophase adjacent condensed regions fused to form cylinder-shaped chromosomes. Based on these observations, we come to the conclusion that the construction of prophase chromosomes is a two-step process, that is, the reorganization and condensation of chromatin. In addition, we report the study of silver-stained, DNA- and histone-depleted prophase chromosomes, describe morphological features of the non-histone protein (NHP) residue in early, middle and late prophase chromosomes, and discuss the roles of NHPs in chromosome construction.     

Mimosine arrests the cell cycle prior to the onset of DNA replication by preventing the binding of human Ctf4/And-1 to chromatin via Hif-1α activation in HeLa cells

Though the G₁ checkpoint in mammalian cells has been known for decades, the molecular targets that prevent S-phase entry remain unknown. Mimosine is a rare plant amino acid that arrests the cell cycle in the G₁ phase before entry into S phase. Here, we show that mimosine interrupts the binding of Ctf4 to chromatin, which is essential for the initiation of DNA replication in HeLa cells, and this effect is mediated by the Hif-1α-dependent increase in the level of p27. Depletion of Hif-1α results in an increased binding of Ctf4 to chromatin and the entry of cells into S phase even in the presence of mimosine. These results suggest that the binding of Ctf4 to chromatin is the target of the Hif-1α-dependent checkpoint pathway for cell cycle arrest in G₁ phase. Although we observed Hif-1α-dependent arrest in mimosine-treated cells, it is possible that Ctf4 may act as a common target for G₁ arrest in various other checkpoint pathways.     

Muscle fibre types and size distribution in sub-antarctic notothenioid fishes

The presumptive tonic muscles fibres of Cottoperca gobio, Champsocephalus esox, Harpagifer bispinis, Eleginops maclovinus, Patagontothen tessellata, P. cornucola and Paranotothenia magellanica stained weakly or were unstained for glycogen, lipid, succinic dehydrogenase (SDHase) and myosin ATPase (mATPase) activity. Slow, intermediate and fast twitch muscle fibres, distinguished on the basis of the pH stability of their mATPases, showed intense, moderate and low staining activity for SDHase, respectively. Slow fibres were the major component of the pectoral fin adductor profundis muscle. The proportion of different muscle fibre types varied from the proximal to distal end of the muscle, but showed relatively little variation between species. The myotomes contained a lateral superficial strip of red muscle composed of presumptive tonic, slow twitch and intermediate fibres, thickening to a major wedge at the horizontal septum. All species also had characteristic secondary dorsal and ventral wedges of red muscle. The relative abundance and localization of muscle fibre types in the red muscle varied between species and with body size in the protandric hermaphrodite E. maclovinus. The frequency distribution of diameters for fast twitch muscle fibres, the major component of deep white muscle, was determined in fish of a range of body sizes. The absence of fibres <20 μm diameter was used as a criterion for the cessation of muscle fibre recruitment. Fibre recruitment had stopped in P. tessellata of 13·8 cm L_T and E. maclovinus of 32·8 cm L_T, equivalent to 49 and 36·5% of their recorded maximum sizes respectively. As a result in 20‐cm P. tessellata, the maximum fibre diameter was 300 μm and 36% of fibres were in excess of 200 μm. The unusually large maximum fibre diameter, the general arrangement of the red muscle layer and the extreme pH lability of the mATPase of fast twitch fibres are all common characters of the sub‐Antarctic and Antarctic Notothenioids, including Cottoperca gobio, the suggested sister group to the Notothenidae.     

Gamma irradiation induced apoptotic changes in the chromatin structure of human erythroleukemia K562 cells

Exponentially growing human erythroleukemia K562 cells were synchronized by centrifugal elutriation prior to and after Co⁶⁰ γ-irradiation (4 Gy). Forward scatter flow cytometry used for size analysis revealed the increase of an early apoptotic cell population ranging from lower (0.05 C-value) to higher DNA content (∼1 C) as the cells progressed through the S phase. The increase in cellular DNA content expressed in C-values correlated with apoptotic chromatin changes manifested as many small apoptotic bodies in early S phase and larger but less numerous disintegrated apoptotic bodies in late S phase. Most significant changes after exposure to γ-irradiation took place in early S phase resulting in an increase of nuclear size by more than 50%. Cell fractions containing irradiated cells showed enhanced growth arrest at 2.4 C-value, which was accompanied by apoptosis. Apoptotic cell cycle arrest near to the G₁/G₀ checkpoint and apoptotic changes indicate that the radiation resistance of K562 cells is related to the bypass of the early stage of the p53 apoptotic pathway. Apoptotic changes in chromatin structure induced by γ-irradiation indicate that these injury-specific changes can be identified and distinguished from chromatin changes induced by UV radiation or heavy metals.     

Structure of the interphase chromatin in the ciliata Bursaria truncatella macronucleus. II. Loop organization of inactive chromatin clumps

Electron microscopic study of chromatin organization in isolated macronuclei of a ciliate Bursaria truncatella showed macronuclear chromatin to be organized in compact clumps 120--180 nm in diameter linked with each other by one or several chromatin fibres. Macronucleus being dispersed in a solution of low ionic strength, radial loops basically of nucleosomal structure start appearing around chromatin clumps. Long-time dispersing of macronuclear chromatin brings complete decompactization of chromatin clumps into a set of nucleosome fibres. The way the fibres of interphase chromatin are packed in a chromatin clump is discussed.