The epitopes of influenza nucleoprotein recognized by cytotoxic T lymphocytes can be defined with short synthetic peptides

A proportion of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) responding to infection by influenza recognize target cells that express the viral nucleoprotein. Recent work showed that CTL can recognize short overlapping regions of large nucleoprotein fragments expressed in transfected L cells. This led to the suggestion that CTL recognize segmental epitopes of denatured or degraded proteins in a similar way to helper T cells. One corollary of this idea is that CTL should recognize appropriate short peptides on the target cell surface. We demonstrate that the epitopes of nucleoprotein recognized by CTL in association with class I molecules of the major histocompatibility complex in both mouse and man can be defined with short synthetic peptides derived from the nucleoprotein sequence.     

Pulmonary blastoma. A case report.

Pulmonary blastoma occurred in a 71-year-old man. Bronchial brushing specimens showed numerous epithelial cells and only a few mesenchymal cell clusters. The epithelial cells were round to oval, more uniform and smaller than ordinary adenocarcinoma cells. The nuclear:cytoplasmic ratio of these cells was increased, with an even chromatin distribution, and nucleoli were inconspicuous. Mesenchymal cell clusters were markedly hypercellular and consisted of small and short spindle-shaped cells with hyperchromatic nuclei. Although it is very difficult to diagnose pulmonary blastoma correctly by cytology, the possibility of pulmonary blastoma should be considered when small, nonsquamous neoplastic cells are observed, particularly in association with small and short spindle-shaped cells reminiscent of mesenchymal origin.     

Critical components of testicular function and sensitivity to disruption

Toxic agents can interfere with the male reproductive system at many targets. Radiation and cancer chemotherapeutic drugs represent one class of toxins the sterilizing effects of which can be analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively in terms of testicular cell kinetics. The cells most sensitive to killing by these agents are the rapidly dividing, differentiating spermatogonia. Cells past the DNA-synthetic stages, including spermatocytes, spermatids, and nongerminal cells, are generally resistant. The slow cycling stem spermatogonia show an intermediate sensitivity, but appear to be the critical targets for the resulting long-term oligo- or azoospermia and infertility. The extent of recovery of spermatogenesis and the duration of infertility can be predicted on the basis of stem cell survival alone, independent of the antineoplastic agent used. When murine stem cells are killed, regeneration of their number and repopulation of the seminiferous epithelium begin almost immediately. In man, recovery can be delayed for years after exposure to agents that kill stem cells. This is a result of the regulation of stem cell regeneration and differentiation in man, the mechanisms of which are unknown. This regulation can explain quantitative differences in interspecies sensitivities to toxic agents. For example, man is much more sensitive than the mouse to reduction in sperm count by radiation at short times after exposure, but not when sufficient recovery times are allowed.     

Accessory oculomotor nuclei of man. 1. The nucleus of Darkschewitsch: a Nissl and Golgi study

A morphoquantitative study was carried out to provide detailed information regarding the cytoarchitecture and neuronal morphology of the nucleus of Darkschewitsch (ND) of man. The neuronal population showed heterogeneity of shape and size of the nerve cell bodies. Small and medium-sized neurons appeared scattered in a wide neuropil. In the Golgi material, two types of neurons were identified: multipolar and fusiform cells. Multipolar cells, which were the most numerous (77%), had 3-5 dendrites giving off primary bifurcations at a short distance from the nerve cell body. Sometimes dendrites and axons were seen to spread outside the ND. The fusiform cells had 1-2 dendrites emerging from the opposite poles of the elongated nerve cell bodies. The dendrites tended to run unbranched for long distances in the section plane before dichotomizing. The dendrites and axons of the fusiform cells always lay inside the ND. The cytoarchitectural features of the ND corresponded to the characters of the reticular formation so that the ND of man could be considered to be a typical reticular nucleus inside the central gray matter. The prevailing presence of multipolar neurons whose processes often spread outside the ND could suggest that the ND is a mainly projective nucleus.     

Urotensin II in the cardiovascular system

Urotensin II is a peptide present, together with its receptor, in the central nervous system and many peripheral tissues (including heart, blood vessels, kidneys and endocrine organs) of many species. The bioactive, mature form contains a cyclic heptapeptide perfectly preserved across species spanning 550 million years of evolution Its biological activity has been explored in cultured cells, in isolated vessels from several species, in the isolated perfused heart and in intact animals and man. Initial demonstration of potent vasoconstriction and cardiac depression by the human isoform in non-human primates has been followed by a series of reports indicating potent but highly variable and generally modest vascular responses dependent on species and vascular region. In man short term cardiovascular responses to administered urotensin II are small or absent. The place of urotensin II in the chronic trophic responses to cardiac and vascular injury and its possible roles as a neurotransmitter and/or regulator of renal and endocrine function remain largely unexplored.     

Enhanced Nanomagnetic Gene Transfection of Human Prenatal Cardiac Progenitor Cells and Adult Cardiomyocytes

Magnetic nanoparticle-based gene transfection has been shown to be an effective, non-viral technique for delivery of both plasmid DNA and siRNA into cells in culture. It has several advantages over other non-viral delivery techniques, such as short transfection times and high cell viability. These advantages have been demonstrated in a number of primary cells and cell lines. Here we report that oscillating magnet array-based nanomagnetic transfection significantly improves transfection efficiency in both human prenatal cardiac progenitor cells and adult cardiomyocytes when compared to static magnetofection, cationic lipid reagents and electroporation, while maintaining high cell viability. In addition, transfection of adult cardiomyocytes was improved further by seeding the cells onto Collagen I-coated plates, with transfection efficiencies of up to 49% compared to 24% with lipid reagents and 19% with electroporation. These results demonstrate that oscillating nanomagnetic transfection far outperforms other non-viral transfection techniques in these important cells.     

The effect of total parenteral nutrition in the rat on a sub-group of enteroendocrine cells

The effect of total parenteral nutrition (TPN) in rats on a number of enteroendocrine cells was investigated. The rats were given a continuous intravenous infusion of basal TPN solution for 7 days. Samples from duodenum, jejunum and ileum were collected, immunostained and the immunoreactive cells quantified using a computerised morphometrics system. The endocrine cells containing somatostatin, cholecystokinin (CCK), gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), neurotensin and enteroglucagon were investigated. The results demonstrated a significant reduction in the number of CCK cells in the duodenum and jejunum. In the ileum the neurotensin-immunoreactive cells were significantly increased in number (P less than 0.02). No change was seen in the number of cells immunostained for somatostatin, GIP or enteroglucagon. These data indicate that short term TPN has a definite effect on the enteroendocrine cell population which may be linked to the side effects of TPN seen in man.     

Primates: Models for red cell transfusion studies—Cryopreservation and survival of transfused red cells in primates

Primates are excellent models for study of blood transfusion in humans. Erythrocytes of chimpanzees, gibbons, baboons, and rhesus monkeys have a half life (T/2) of 14 to 16 days and a life span (T/10) of approximately 50 to 60 days, which is about half of that found in man. Red cells of primates were cryopreserved by freezing using either a droplet method or the low-glycerol rapid-freeze procedure. Thawed cells survive normally when transfused into the same species. Transfusion of incompatible isologous blood in alloimmunized baboons, in the presence of high titer antibodies, showed survival with small volumes to be virtually nil, but with large volumes, a short normal survival period was followed by a “collapse” phenomenon similar to that seen in humans.     

Drainin required for membrane fusion of the contractile vacuole in Dictyostelium is the prototype of a protein family also represented in man.

The contractile vacuole expels water by forming a channel with the plasma membrane and thus enables cells to survive in a hypo-osmotic environment. Here we characterize drainin, a Dictyostelium protein involved in this process, as the first member of a protein family represented in fission yeast, Caenorhabditis elegans and man. Gene replacement in Dictyostelium shows that drainin acts at a checkpoint of channel formation between the contractile vacuole and the plasma membrane. A green fluorescent protein fusion of drainin localizes specifically to the contractile vacuole and rescues its periodic discharge in drainin-null cells. Drainin is a peripheral membrane protein, requiring a short hydrophobic stretch in its C-terminal region for localization and function. We suggest that drainin acts in a signaling cascade that couples a volume-sensing device in the vacuolar membrane to the membrane fusion machinery.     

Specificity in beta cell expression of L-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, short chain, and potential role in down-regulating insulin release

A loss-of-function mutation of the mitochondrial beta-oxidation enzyme l-3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, short chain (HADHSC), has been associated with hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia in man. It is still unclear whether loss of glucose homeostasis in these patients (partly) results from a dysregulation of beta cells. This study examines HADHSC expression in purified rat beta cells and investigates whether its selective suppression elevates insulin release. Beta cells expressed the highest levels of HADHSC mRNA and protein of all examined tissues, including those with high rates of mitochondrial beta-oxidation. On the other hand, beta cells expressed relatively low levels of other beta-oxidation enzymes (acyl-CoA dehydrogenase short, medium, and long chain and acetyl-coenzyme A acyltransferase 2). HADHSC expression was sequence-specifically silenced by RNA interference, and the effects were examined on glucose-stimulated insulin secretion following 48-72 h of suppression. In both rat beta cells and in the beta cell line INS1 832-13, HADHSC silencing resulted in elevated insulin release at low and at high glucose concentrations, which appeared not to be caused by increased rates of glucose metabolism or an inhibition in fatty acid oxidation. These data indicate that the normal beta cell phenotype is characterized by a high expression of HADHSC and a low expression of other beta-oxidation enzymes. Down-regulation of HADHSC causes an elevated secretory activity suggesting that this enzyme protects against inappropriately high insulin levels and hypoglycemia.     

A comparative study of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue of primates and rodents

Previous studies have suggested that the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) of man is distinct from that of laboratory animals, but it is not clear whether this is due to environmental or true species difference. We have made a comparative study of rats and baboons because, like rats, baboons are herbivorous and relatively unhygienic but they are phylogenetically much more closely related to man. The Peyer's patches of rats, baboons and man are morphologically very similar in all three species but phenotypically those of man and baboons are different to those of rats. Cells with irregular nuclei ("centrocyte-like" cells) surround the mantle zone in all three species. While these cells express surface IgD and IgM in rats, in man and baboons they express surface IgM or IgA. A population of immunoblasts which express cytoplasmic IgA are present in association with the high endothelial venules of rat Peyer's patches. These cells are not present to the same extent in man or baboons. This suggests that the events between the antigenic stimulation of Peyer's patches and the ultimate seeding of the lamina propria with IgA secreting plasma cells may be different in rodents and primates.     

Evolutionary transience of hypervariable minisatellites in man and the primates.

Using PCR, two minisatellite loci showing extreme repeat-unit copy-number variation in humans have been characterized in great apes and monkeys. In contrast to humans, minisatellite locus MS32 is monomorphic with only 3-4 diverged repeat units in great apes, Old World and New World monkeys, this organization presumably representing the relatively stable ancestral precursor state of the human hypervariable locus. Similarly, minisatellite MS1 shows extreme repeat-copy-number variability in man compared with low copy number and minimal variability in great apes. Analysis of variant repeat units shows that the 5' and 3' regions of MS1 are relatively stable in great apes and man, and that variability in man is confined to the central region of the minisatellite. In contrast to the great apes, MS1 is highly variable in Old World monkeys. These results, as well as computer simulations of minisatellite evolution based on known mutation rates, show that short minisatellites are stable within the genome, and that the degree of polymorphism at a given locus can change dramatically over a short period of evolutionary time. The ability of hypervariable minisatellites to detect highly informative loci by cross-species hybridization is therefore largely unpredictable.     

The origin of modern humans: A cytogenetic model

A new model of the origin of man is proposed on the basis of recent studies on cytogenetics of chromosomal Q-heterochromatin regions (Q-HRs) in man and other higher primates. This model is based on the following facts: a) chromosomal Q-HRs were found in the genome of only three higher primates (man, the chimpanzee and the gorilla); b) chromosomal Q-HRs in the human genome, unlike those in apes, exhibit considerable quantitative variability; c) the number of human chromosomal Q-HRs in the genome has a selective value in the adaptation of human populations to various environmental conditions. According to this model, the three major morphofunctional distinctions of man—great physiological flexibility, characteristic morphological structure, and conceptual thinking—arose as a result of the capacity of our remote ancestors to broadly change their genome mass owing to features of chromosomal Q-HRs that are only intrinsic to man. We feel that genome-mass variability through chromosomal Q-HRs allowed man to adapt himself to various environments over such a short period of time.     

Differentiation associated changes in thymidylate synthetase and thymidine kinase activities in intestinal cells.

Proliferative and mature intestinal cells of the jejunum and colon of rat, colon of man, and the surface cells of neoplastic colon lesions of man were assayed for thymidylate synthetase and thymidine kinase activities. Cells from the proliferative region of rat jejunal mucosa were found to have higher enzyme activities than cells from the non-proliferative region. Thymidylate synthetase activity was observed to decrease as cells migrated from base to upper crypt, whereas thymidine kinase activity increased during crypt migration and then declined as cells migrated onto villi. Thymidine kinase activity also remained elevated longer than thymidylate synthetase during cell migration in colonic mucosa of rat and man. High thymidine kinase: thymidylate synthetase ratios similar to those observed in flat mucosa before cells become fully mature were found in cells removed from expanding neoplastic lesions of man.     

GABA and GAD-like immunoreactivity in the primate retina

Summary GABA immunoreactivity was studied and compared with GAD immunoreactivity in the retinae of baboon, cynomolgus monkey and man. The central and peripheral parts of the retinae were investigated separately in cynomolgus monkey and in man. The same kinds of structures were stained with both antisera. Cells with a position corresponding to amacrine cells were stained, as well as processes in the inner plexiform layer and some cells in the ganglion cell layer. The outer plexiform layer and some cells with the position and configuration of horizontal cells also appeared immunoreactive. Staining was also observed in bipolar-like cells, in man most clearly when using the GABA antiserum in sections from the central parts of the retina. It is possible that horizontal cells, as well as bipolar-like cells, may play a previously unsuspected role in GABAergic transmission in the primate retina.     

Aerobiology at rothamsted

This short account describes the beginnings of aerobiology at Rothamsted and the development of studies of airborne dispersal of insects and fungal spores in relation to diseases of plants, animals and man.     

GABA and GAD-like immunoreactivity in the primate retina

GABA immunoreactivity was studied and compared with GAD immunoreactivity in the retinae of baboon, cynomolgus monkey and man. The central and peripheral parts of the retinae were investigated separately in cynomolgus monkey and in man. The same kinds of structures were stained with both antisera. Cells with a position corresponding to amacrine cells were stained, as well as processes in the inner plexiform layer and some cells in the ganglion cell layer. The outer plexiform layer and some cells with the position and configuration of horizontal cells also appeared immunoreactive. Staining was also observed in bipolar-like cells, in man most clearly when using the GABA antiserum in sections from the central parts of the retina. It is possible that horizontal cells, as well as bipolar-like cells, may play a previously unsuspected role in GABAergic transmission in the primate retina.     

The alpha-chain of murine CD8 lacks an invariant Ig-like disulfide bond but contains a unique intrachain loop instead

The CD8 Ag is a cell surface heterodimer which demarcates predominantly cytotoxic T cells which are restricted by class I MHC Ag. The disulfide bonds within the murine structure were assigned in this study and the alpha-beta-interchain bond involves one or more cysteine residues located in each chain proximal to the plasma membrane or included within it. The location of the intrachain disulfide loop within the CD8 beta-chain confirms its proposed structural homology to an IgV domain but no corresponding disulfide loop is present within the alpha-chain. The invariant IgV disulfide loop has been replaced by a unique, short loop involving an unusual cysteine which is conserved in the CD8 alpha-chains of man, mouse, and rat. Despite its lack of precedent in other Ig-related structures, this unusual disulfide loop can be parsimoniously accommodated into a modified domain which has retained the major features of the Ig structural motif.     

The effect of ethanol on arachidonic acid metabolism in the murine peritoneal macrophage

Exposure to ethanol in man has been linked to an alteration of the immune surveillance system and reduced ability of the macrophage to undergo phagocytosis. Since ethanol has been suggested to alter membrane function and inhibit the production of calcium ionophore stimulated synthesis of prostaglandins and leukotrienes by the human neutrophil and transformed murine mast cell, the dose response effect of ethanol on the biosynthesis of icosanoids by the peritoneal macrophage during zymosan phagocytosis was studied. Peritoneal macrophages from two inbred strains of mice derived from a common stock (HS) and selected for sensitivity to ethanol (short sleep [SS]/long sleep [LS]) were studied. Zymosan phagocytosis was found to lead to synthesis of LTC4 (70 ng/10(6) cells), 6-keto-PGF1 alpha (5 ng/10(6) cells) and PGE2 (3 ng/10(6) cells). For the HS macrophage, ethanol caused a dose dependent inhibition of these lipid mediators as well as inhibition of phagocytosis and release of beta-hexosaminidase. However, a difference was observed in arachidonate metabolism stimulated by phagocytosis between the LS and SS mice below 100 mM ethanol. The SS mouse had a 50% inhibition of cyclooxygenase products at 86 mM ethanol with no inhibition of lipoxygenase metabolites. The LS mice had a trend suggesting increased lipoxygenase metabolites below 100 mM ethanol. At these levels of ethanol which can be found in man, these results suggest there may be differential production of lipid mediators under genetic control.