Adult proportionality in small-bodied foragers: a test of ecogeographic expectations

If predictable, ecogeographic patterning in body size and proportions of human populations can provide valuable information regarding human biology, adaptation to local environments, migration histories, and health, now and in the past. This paper evaluates the assumption that small-bodied Later Stone Age (LSA) foragers of Southern Africa show the adult proportions that would be expected of warm-adapted populations. Comparisons are also made with small-bodied foragers from the Andaman Islands (AI). Indices including brachial, crural, limb element length to skeletal trunk height, and femoral head and bi-iliac breadth to femoral length were calculated from samples of LSA (n = 124) and AI (n = 31) adult skeletons. Samples derived from the literature include those from high (Europe), middle (North Africa), and low (Sub-Saharan Africa) latitude regions. The LSA and AI samples match some but not all expected ecogeographic patterns for their particular regions of long term habitation. For most limb length to skeletal trunk height indices the LSA and AI are most similar to the other mid-latitude sample (North Africans). However, both groups are similar to low latitude groups in their narrow bi-iliac breadths, and the AI display relatively long radii. Proportions of LSA and AI samples also differ from those of African pygmies. In regions like southern-most Africa, that do not experience climatic extremes of temperature or humidity, or where small body size exists through drift or selection, body size, and proportions may also be influenced by nonclimatic variables, such as energetic efficiency.     

The influence of body proportions on femoral and tibial midshaft shape in hunter‐gatherers

Variation in femoral and tibial diaphyseal shape is used as an indicator of adaptation to patterns of terrestrial mobility. Recent experimentation has implied that lower limb diaphyseal shape may be primarily influenced by lower limb length, and less so by mobility patterns. If valid, this would, at most, render previous interpretations of mobility patterns based on analyses of diaphyseal shape questionable, and, at least, require additional standardization that considers the influence of limb length. Although the consequences could be profound, this implication has yet to be directly tested. Additionally, the influence of body breadth on tibial shape (and to a lesser extent femoral shape) remains uncertain. Tibial and femoral cross‐sectional midshaft shape measurements, taken from nine Pleistocene and Holocene skeletal populations, were compared against lower limb length, limb segment length, and bi‐iliac breadth. Generally, limb length and limb segment length do not significantly influence femoral or tibial midshaft shape. After controlling for body mass greater bi‐iliac breadth is associated with a relative mediolateral strengthening of the femoral midshaft, while the influence of a wider body shape (BIB/length) is associated with a relative M‐L strengthening of the tibia and femur of males, and the tibia of females. We conclude that; (1) mechanical interpretations of lower limb diaphyseal shape are most parsimonious due to the lack of evidence for a consistent relationship between segment length and shape; however, (2) further work is required to investigate the influence of bi‐iliac breadth on both femoral and tibial midshaft shape. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Protection of obstetric dimensions in a small-bodied human sample

In human females, the bony pelvis must find a balance between being small (narrow) for efficient bipedal locomotion, and being large to accommodate a relatively large newborn. It has been shown that within a given population, taller/larger-bodied women have larger pelvic canals. This study investigates whether in a population where small body size is the norm, pelvic geometry (size and shape), on average, shows accommodation to protect the obstetric canal. Osteometric data were collected from the pelves, femora, and clavicles (body size indicators) of adult skeletons representing a range of adult body size. Samples include Holocene Later Stone Age (LSA) foragers from southern Africa (n = 28 females, 31 males), Portuguese from the Coimbra-identified skeletal collection (CISC) (n = 40 females, 40 males) and European-Americans from the Hamann-Todd osteological collection (H-T) (n = 40 females, 40 males). Patterns of sexual dimorphism are similar in the samples. Univariate and multivariate analyses of raw and Mosimann shape-variables indicate that compared to the CISC and H-T females, the LSA females have relatively large midplane and outlet canal planes (particularly posterior and A-P lengths). The LSA males also follow this pattern, although with absolutely smaller pelves in multivariate space. The CISC females, who have equally small stature, but larger body mass, do not show the same type of pelvic canal size and shape accommodation. The results suggest that adaptive allometric modeling in at least some small-bodied populations protects the obstetric canal. These findings support the use of population-specific attributes in the clinical evaluation of obstetric risk.     

Human body mass estimation: a comparison of "morphometric" and "mechanical" methods

In the past, body mass was reconstructed from hominin skeletal remains using both "mechanical" methods which rely on the support of body mass by weight-bearing skeletal elements, and "morphometric" methods which reconstruct body mass through direct assessment of body size and shape. A previous comparison of two such techniques, using femoral head breadth (mechanical) and stature and bi-iliac breadth (morphometric), indicated a good general correspondence between them (Ruff et al. [1997] Nature 387:173-176). However, the two techniques were never systematically compared across a large group of modern humans of diverse body form. This study incorporates skeletal measures taken from 1,173 Holocene adult individuals, representing diverse geographic origins, body sizes, and body shapes. Femoral head breadth, bi-iliac breadth (after pelvic rearticulation), and long bone lengths were measured on each individual. Statures were estimated from long bone lengths using appropriate reference samples. Body masses were calculated using three available femoral head breadth (FH) formulae and the stature/bi-iliac breadth (STBIB) formula, and compared. All methods yielded similar results. Correlations between FH estimates and STBIB estimates are 0.74-0.81. Slight differences in results between the three FH estimates can be attributed to sampling differences in the original reference samples, and in particular, the body-size ranges included in those samples. There is no evidence for systematic differences in results due to differences in body proportions. Since the STBIB method was validated on other samples, and the FH methods produced similar estimates, this argues that either may be applied to skeletal remains with some confidence.     

Body weight prediction in early fossil hominids: Towards a taxon-“independent” approach

The choice of a model taxon is crucial when investigating fossil hominids that clearly do not resemble any extant species (such as Australopithecus) or show significant differences from modern human proportions (such as Homo habilis OH 62). An “interhominoid” combination is not adequate either, as scaling with body weight is strongly divergent in African apes and humans for most skeletal predictors investigated here. Therefore, in relation to a study of seven long bone dimensions, a new taxon-“independent” approach is suggested. For a given predictor, its taxonomic “independence” is restricted to the size range over which the body weight-predictor relationship for African apes and humans converges. Different predictors produce converging body weight estimates (BWEs) for different size ranges: taxon-“independent” estimates can be calculated for small- and medium-sized hominids (e. g., for weights below 50 kg) using femoral and tibial dimensions, whereas upper limb bones provide converging results for large hominids (above 50 kg). If the remains of Australopithecus afarensis really belong to one species, the relationship of male (above 60 kg) to female body weight (approximately 30 kg) does not fall within the observed range of modern hominoids. Considering Sts 14 (22 kg) to represent a small-sized Australopithecus africanus, the level of encephalization lies well above that of extant apes. If OH 62 (approximately 25 kg), with limb proportions less human-like than those of australopithecines, indeed represents Homo habilis (which has been questioned previously), an increase in relative brain size would have occurred well before full bipedality, an assumption running counter to current assumptions concerning early human evolution. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The Middle/Later Stone Age transition and cultural dynamics of late Pleistocene East Africa

The Middle to Later Stone Age (MSA/LSA) transition is a prominent feature of the African archeological record that began in some places ~30,000–60,000 years ago, historically associated with the origin and/or dispersal of “modern” humans. Unlike the analogous Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in Eurasia and associated Neanderthal extinction, the African MSA/LSA record remains poorly documented, with its potential role in explaining changes in the behavioral diversity and geographic range of Homo sapiens largely unexplored. I review archeological and biogeographic data from East Africa, show regionally diverse pathways to the MSA/LSA transition, and emphasize the need for analytical approaches that document potential ancestor‐descendent relationships visible in the archeological record, needed to assess independent invention, population interaction, dispersal, and other potential mechanisms for behavioral change. Diversity within East Africa underscores the need for regional, rather than continental‐scale narratives of the later evolutionary history of H. sapiens.     

Allometry of head and body size in Holocene foragers of the South African Cape

Opportunities to assess morphological allometry in small-bodied human populations are rare. The foragers of the Later Stone Age of the South African Cape are characteristically small-bodied. Previous studies have shown that during the period of ca. 3500 to 2000 years BP (uncalibrated (14) C dates), the regional population shows transient reduced stature, body mass, and cranial size, a pattern that has been tentatively tied to demographic pressure on resources. This study examines the relationships among cranial size (centroid size) and body size (femoral length, femoral head diameter, and bi-iliac breadth) during the second half of the Holocene (N = 62). Reduced major axis regression indicates negative allometry of cranial centroid size with body size. Residuals (from ordinary least squares regression of cranial centroid size on body size) are regressed on radiocarbon date to examine temporal changes in the relationship between cranial and body size. Cranial and pelvic sizes are most conserved through time, while more ancient skeletons possess shorter femora and smaller femoral heads. The relationship between cranial centroid size and femoral length shows larger and more variable residuals at more recent dates, indicating a greater or more variable disassociation between cranial size and stature relative to more ancient skeletons. A similar, but nonsignificant relationship exists between cranial size and bi-iliac breadth. These results provide insights into the use of aspects of body size and proportionality in the assessment of health in past populations.     

Methods for estimating missing human skeletal element osteometric dimensions employed in the revised fully technique for estimating stature

One of the greatest limitations to the application of the revised Fully anatomical stature estimation method is the inability to measure some of the skeletal elements required in its calculation. These element dimensions cannot be obtained due to taphonomic factors, incomplete excavation, or disease processes, and result in missing data. This study examines methods of imputing these missing dimensions using observable Fully measurements from the skeleton and the accuracy of incorporating these missing element estimations into anatomical stature reconstruction. These are further assessed against stature estimations obtained from mathematical regression formulae for the lower limb bones (femur and tibia). Two thousand seven hundred and seventeen North and South American indigenous skeletons were measured, and subsets of these with observable Fully dimensions were used to simulate missing elements and create estimation methods and equations. Comparisons were made directly between anatomically reconstructed statures and mathematically derived statures, as well as with anatomically derived statures with imputed missing dimensions. These analyses demonstrate that, while mathematical stature estimations are more accurate, anatomical statures incorporating missing dimensions are not appreciably less accurate and are more precise. The anatomical stature estimation method using imputed missing dimensions is supported. Missing element estimation, however, is limited to the vertebral column (only when lumbar vertebrae are present) and to talocalcaneal height (only when femora and tibiae are present). Crania, entire vertebral columns, and femoral or tibial lengths cannot be reliably estimated. Further discussion of the applicability of these methods is discussed.     

The influence of body size on adult skeletal age estimation methods

Accurate age estimations are essential to archaeological and forensic analyses. However, reliability for adult skeletal age estimations is poor, especially for individuals over the age of 40 years. This is the first study to show that body size influences skeletal age estimation. The ??can et al., Lovejoy et al., Buckberry and Chamberlain, and Suchey‐Brooks age methods were tested on 764 adult skeletons from the Hamann‐Todd and William Bass Collections. Statures ranged from 1.30 to 1.93 m and body masses ranged from 24.0 to 99.8 kg. Transition analysis was used to evaluate the differences in the age estimations. For all four methods, the smallest individuals have the lowest ages at transition and the largest individuals have the highest ages at transition. Short and light individuals are consistently underaged, while tall and heavy individuals are consistently overaged. When femoral length and femoral head diameter are compared with the log‐age model, results show the same trend as the known stature and body mass measurements. The skeletal remains of underweight individuals have fewer age markers while those of obese individuals have increased surface degeneration and osteophytic lipping. Tissue type and mechanical loading have been shown to affect bone turnover rates, and may explain the differing patterns of skeletal aging. From an archaeological perspective, the underaging of light, short individuals suggests the need to revisit the current research consensus on the young mortality rates of past populations. From a forensic perspective, understanding the influence of body size will impact efforts to identify victims of mass disasters, genocides, and homicides. Am J Phys Anthropol 156:35–57, 2015 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Skeletal growth in early and late Neolithic foragers from the Cis‐Baikal region of Eastern Siberia

Skeletal growth is explored between Early Neolithic (EN) (8000 to 6800 BP) and Late Neolithic (LN) (6000 to 5200 BP) foragers from the Cis‐Baikal region of Eastern Siberia. Previous studies suggest that increased systemic stress and smaller adult body size characterize the EN compared to LN. On this basis, greater evidence for stunting and wasting is expected in the EN compared to LN. Skeletal growth parameters assessed here include femoral and tibial lengths, estimated stature and body mass, femoral midshaft cortical thickness, total bone thickness, and medullary width. Forward selection was used to fit polynomial lines to each skeletal growth parameter relative to dental age in the pooled samples, and standardized residuals were compared between groups using t tests. Standardized residuals of body mass and femoral length were significantly lower in the EN compared to LN sample, particularly from late infancy through early adolescence. However, no significant differences in the standardized residuals for cortical thickness, medullary width, total bone thickness, tibial length, or stature were found between the groups. Age ranges for stunting in femoral length and wasting in body mass are consistent with environmental perturbations experienced at the cessation of breast feeding and general resource insecurity in the EN compared to LN sample. Differences in relative femoral but not tibial length may be associated with age‐specific variation in growth‐acceleration for the distal and proximal limb segments. Similarity in cortical bone growth between the two samples may reflect the combined influences of systemic and mechanical factors on this parameter. Am J Phys Anthropol 153:377–386, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Stature estimation in ancient Egyptians: a new technique based on anatomical reconstruction of stature

Trotter and Gleser's (Trotter and Gleser: Am J Phys Anthropol 10 (1952) 469-514; Trotter and Gleser: Am J Phys Anthropol 16 (1958) 79-123) long bone formulae for US Blacks or derivations thereof (Robins and Shute: Hum Evol 1 (1986) 313-324) have been previously used to estimate the stature of ancient Egyptians. However, limb length to stature proportions differ between human populations; consequently, the most accurate mathematical stature estimates will be obtained when the population being examined is as similar as possible in proportions to the population used to create the equations. The purpose of this study was to create new stature regression formulae based on direct reconstructions of stature in ancient Egyptians and assess their accuracy in comparison to other stature estimation methods. We also compare Egyptian body proportions to those of modern American Blacks and Whites. Living stature estimates were derived using a revised Fully anatomical method (Raxter et al.: Am J Phys Anthropol 130 (2006) 374-384). Long bone stature regression equations were then derived for each sex. Our results confirm that, although ancient Egyptians are closer in body proportion to modern American Blacks than they are to American Whites, proportions in Blacks and Egyptians are not identical. The newly generated Egyptian-based stature regression formulae have standard errors of estimate of 1.9-4.2 cm. All mean directional differences are less than 0.4% compared to anatomically estimated stature, while results using previous formulae are more variable, with mean directional biases varying between 0.2% and 1.1%, tibial and radial estimates being the most biased. There is no evidence for significant variation in proportions among temporal or social groupings; thus, the new formulae may be broadly applicable to ancient Egyptian remains.     

Elucidating inequality in Nubia: An examination of entheseal changes at Kerma (Sudan)

Located 10 km south of the Third Cataract of the Nile River, the ancient city of Kerma was once capital to the second largest state in Africa. The Eastern Cemetery at Kerma (～4 km east of city center) encompasses 80+ hectares and was used over a period of 1,500 years (3,200–1,500 BC). Excavated in the early 20th century by George Reisner, the cemetery contained an estimated 20,000–40,000 individuals. Reisner classified these burials into multiple categories, including chiefs and human sacrifices, based on burial position and grave goods. This study investigates the skeletal embodiment of social inequality by examining variation in entheseal severity between the Kerma burial classifications. Seventeen entheses were examined using the Hawkey and Merbs (1995) scoring method (n = 205 individuals); age, sex, and body size variables were considered by employing Mann–Whitney U tests and partial Spearman's correlations. This analysis suggests that significant differences in entheseal changes existed between select burial types. Specifically, “corridor sacrifices” had significantly higher rates of entheseal changes while “chiefs” and “subsidiary burials” had similar entheseal changes; furthermore, within these burial categories, males had higher entheseal scores despite body size controls. The elevated entheseal changes in the sacrificial burials may be due to an intensive agro‐pastoral lifestyle or other demanding forms of manual labor. In conclusion, the disparity of entheseal markers between burial subgroups at Kerma might reflect a degree of social inequality within this state level society. This bioarchaeological research informs our understanding of socially‐defined categories of persons as well as everyday life in Ancient Kerma. Am J Phys Anthropol 156:192–202, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Body size prediction from juvenile skeletal remains

There are currently no methods for predicting body mass from juvenile skeletal remains and only a very limited number for predicting stature. In this study, stature and body mass prediction equations are generated for each year from 1 to 17 years of age using a subset of the Denver Growth Study sample, followed longitudinally (n = 20 individuals, 340 observations). Radiographic measurements of femoral distal metaphyseal and head breadth are used to predict body mass and long bone lengths are used to predict stature. In addition, pelvic bi-iliac breadth and long bone lengths are used to predict body mass in older adolescents. Relative prediction errors are equal to or smaller than those associated with similar adult estimation formulae. Body proportions change continuously throughout growth, necessitating age-specific formulae. Adult formulae overestimate stature and body mass in younger juveniles, but work well in 17-year-olds from the sample, indicating that in terms of body proportions they are representative of the general population. To illustrate use of the techniques, they are applied to the juvenile Homo erectus (ergaster) KNM-WT 15000 skeleton. New body mass and stature estimates for this specimen are similar to previous estimates derived using other methods. Body mass estimates range from 50 to 53 kg, and stature was probably slightly under 157 cm, although a precise stature estimate is difficult to determine due to differences in linear body proportions between KNM-WT 15000 and the Denver reference sample.     

Stature in Holocene foragers of North India

The Ganga Plain of North India provides an archaeological and skeletal record of semi‐nomadic Holocene foragers in association with an aceramic Mesolithic culture. Prior estimates of stature for Mesolithic Lake Cultures (MLC) used inappropriate equations from an American White reference group and need revision. Attention is given to intralimb body proportions and geo‐climatic provenance of MLC series in considering the most suitable reference population. Regression equations from ancient Egyptians are used in reconstructing stature for MLC skeletal series from Damdama (DDM), Mahadaha (MDH), and Sarai Nahar Rai (SNR). Mean stature is estimated at between 174 (MDH) and 178 cm (DDM and SNR) for males, and between 163 cm (MDH) and 179 cm (SNR) for females. Stature estimates based on ancient Egyptian equations are significantly shorter (from 3.5 to 7.1 cm shorter in males; from 3.2 to 7.5 cm shorter in females) than estimates using the American White reference group. Revised stature estimates from tibia length and from femur + tibia more accurately estimate MLC stature for two reasons: a) these elements are highly correlated with stature and have lower standard estimates of error, and b) uncertainty regarding methods of measuring tibia length is avoided. When compared with Holocene samples of native Americans and Mesolithic Europeans, MLC series from North India are tall. This aspect of their biological variation confirms earlier assessments and results from the synergistic influence of balanced nutrition from broad‐spectrum foraging, body‐proportions adapted to a seasonally hot and arid climate, and the functional demands of a mobile, semi‐nomadic life‐style. Am J Phys Anthropol 153:408–416, 2014. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Body mass and stature estimation based on the first metatarsal in humans

Archaeological assemblages often lack the complete long bones needed to estimate stature and body mass. The most accurate estimates of body mass and stature are produced using femoral head diameter and femur length. Foot bones including the first metatarsal preserve relatively well in a range of archaeological contexts. In this article we present regression equations using the first metatarsal to estimate femoral head diameter, femoral length, and body mass in a diverse human sample. The skeletal sample comprised 87 individuals (Andamanese, Australasians, Africans, Native Americans, and British). Results show that all first metatarsal measurements correlate moderately to highly (r = 0.62-0.91) with femoral head diameter and length. The proximal articular dorsoplantar diameter is the best single measurement to predict both femoral dimensions. Percent standard errors of the estimate are below 5%. Equations using two metatarsal measurements show a small increase in accuracy. Direct estimations of body mass (calculated from measured femoral head diameter using previously published equations) have an error of just over 7%. No direct stature estimation equations were derived due to the varied linear body proportions represented in the sample. The equations were tested on a sample of 35 individuals from Christ Church Spitalfields. Percentage differences in estimated and measured femoral head diameter and length were less than 1%. This study demonstrates that it is feasible to use the first metatarsal in the estimation of body mass and stature. The equations presented here are particularly useful for assemblages where the long bones are either missing or fragmented, and enable estimation of these fundamental population parameters in poorly preserved assemblages.     

Linking structural variability in long bone diaphyses to habitual behaviors: foragers from the southern African Later Stone Age and the Andaman Islands

The cross-sectional distribution of cortical bone in long bone diaphyses is highly responsive to mechanical loading during life, yet the relationship between systemic and localized influences on skeletal structure remains unclear. This study investigates postcranial robustness throughout the body among adults from two groups of foragers with different patterns and modes of mobility, to determine whether there is evidence for upper vs. lower body localization of skeletal robustness. The samples used for this comparison are from the southern African Later Stone Age (LSA; n = 65, male = 33, female = 28) dating from ca. 10,000 to 2,000 B.P., and 19th century indigenous Andaman Islanders (AI; n = 36, male = 17, female = 16). The LSA were highly mobile foragers who did not exploit offshore marine resources. In contrast, the AI had tightly constrained terrestrial, but significant marine, mobility. Geometric properties of cortical bone distribution in the diaphyses of the clavicle, humerus, femur, tibia, and first metatarsal are compared between the samples, providing a representation of skeletal robustness throughout the body. Multivariate ANOVA shows the AI to have significantly stronger clavicles and humeri, while the LSA femora, tibiae, and first metatarsals are stronger than those of the AI. These patterns, in which upper and lower limbs show biomechanical properties that are consistent with habitual behaviors, suggest localized osteogenic response. Although postcranial robustness appears to be correlated with overall limb function, the results suggest that more proximal elements within the limb may be more responsive to mechanical loading.     

Observer aging and long‐term avian survey data quality

Long‐term wildlife monitoring involves collecting time series data, often using the same observers over multiple years. Aging‐related changes to these observers may be an important, under‐recognized source of error that can bias management decisions. In this study, we used data from two large, independent bird surveys, the Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Ontario (“OBBA”) and the North American Breeding Bird Survey (“BBS”), to test for age‐related observer effects in long‐term time series of avian presence and abundance. We then considered the effect of such aging phenomena on current population trend estimates. We found significantly fewer detections among older versus younger observers for 13 of 43 OBBA species, and declines in detection as an observer ages for 4 of 6 vocalization groups comprising 59 of 64 BBS species. Consistent with hearing loss influencing this pattern, we also found evidence for increasingly severe detection declines with increasing call frequency among nine high‐pitched bird species (OBBA); however, there were also detection declines at other frequencies, suggesting important additional effects of aging, independent of hearing loss. We lastly found subtle, significant relationships between some species' published population trend estimates and (1) their corresponding vocalization frequency (n ≥ 22 species) and (2) their estimated declines in detectability among older observers (n = 9 high‐frequency, monotone species), suggesting that observer aging can negatively bias long‐term monitoring data for some species in part through hearing loss effects. We recommend that survey designers and modelers account for observer age where possible.     

Body proportions of circumpolar peoples as evidenced from skeletal data: Ipiutak and Tigara (Point Hope) versus Kodiak Island Inuit

Given the well‐documented fact that human body proportions covary with climate (presumably due to the action of selection), one would expect that the Ipiutak and Tigara Inuit samples from Point Hope, Alaska, would be characterized by an extremely cold‐adapted body shape. Comparison of the Point Hope Inuit samples to a large (n > 900) sample of European and European‐derived, African and African‐derived, and Native American skeletons (including Koniag Inuit from Kodiak Island, Alaska) confirms that the Point Hope Inuit evince a cold‐adapted body form, but analyses also reveal some unexpected results. For example, one might suspect that the Point Hope samples would show a more cold‐adapted body form than the Koniag, given their more extreme environment, but this is not the case. Additionally, univariate analyses seldom show the Inuit samples to be more cold‐adapted in body shape than Europeans, and multivariate cluster analyses that include a myriad of body shape variables such as femoral head diameter, bi‐iliac breadth, and limb segment lengths fail to effectively separate the Inuit samples from Europeans. In fact, in terms of body shape, the European and the Inuit samples tend to be cold‐adapted and tend to be separated in multivariate space from the more tropically adapted Africans, especially those groups from south of the Sahara. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Sex‐ and Depot‐Dependent Differences in Adipogenesis in Normal‐Weight Humans

To elucidate cellular mechanisms of sex‐related differences in fat distribution, we determined body fat distribution (dual‐energy X‐ray absorptiometry and single‐slice abdominal computed tomography (CT)), adipocyte size, adipocyte number, and proportion of early‐differentiated adipocytes (aP2⁺CD68^?) in the stromovascular fraction (SVF) in the upper and lower body of normal‐weight healthy men (n = 12) and premenopausal women (n = 20) (age: 18–49 years, BMI: 18–26 kg/m²). Women had more subcutaneous and less visceral fat than men. The proportion of early differentiated adipocytes in the subcutaneous adipose tissue SVF of women was greater than in men (P = 0.01), especially in the femoral depot, although in vitro adipogenesis, as assessed by peroxisome proliferator activated receptor‐γ (PPARγ) expression, was not increased in femoral preadipocytes cultured from women compared with men. In women, differentiation of femoral preadipocytes was less than that of abdominal subcutaneous preadipocytes (P = 0.04), and femoral subcutaneous preadipocytes tended to be more resistant to tumor necrosis factor‐α (TNFα)–induced apoptosis (P = 0.06). Thus, turnover and utilization of the preadipocyte pool may be reduced in lower vs. the upper‐body fat in women. Collectively, these data indicate that the microenvironment, rather than differences in inherent properties of preadipocytes between genders, may explain the gynoid obesity phenotype and higher percent body fat in women compared to men.