Comparison of methods for assessing abdominal adipose tissue from magnetic resonance images

Objective: To compare the inter‐rater and intra‐rater reliability and analysis time of two methods for quantifying visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) volumes from magnetic resonance (MR) images. Research Methods and Procedures: Ten subjects (BMI, 27.0 ± 2.1 kg/m²; 56 years of age ± 4 years) underwent MR imaging of the abdomen. Ten transverse T1‐weighted images were selected from each scan and analyzed using two software packages that differ in principle. The first method, ANALYZE version 5.0, represents the manual threshold method, and the second, HIPPO version 1.3, is based on the fuzzy clustering approach. Inter‐rater reliability for each method was assessed by comparing the intra‐class correlation coefficients (ICCs) for VAT and SAT results from two evaluators, and intra‐rater reliability for each method was assessed by comparing ICCs for VAT and SAT analyses performed 1 week apart by the same evaluator. The total time for analysis also was compared between methods. Results: The inter‐rater reliability for VAT was greater with HIPPO than with ANALYZE (ICC = 0.996 vs. 0.828), whereas inter‐rater reliability for SAT did not differ between methods (ICC = 0.975 and 0.987). The intra‐rater reliability was equally high with HIPPO and ANALYZE for both VAT (ICC = 0.998 vs. 0.992) and SAT (ICC = 0.996 vs. 0.992). HIPPO required less than one‐half as much analysis time as ANALYZE (15.9 ± 4.4 vs. 36.5 ± 8.2 minutes, p < 0.0001). Discussion: HIPPO software appears advantageous for the quantification of VAT from multislice MR images because inter‐rater results are more reliable, and it is more time‐efficient than less automated methods.     

Primates got personality,too: Toward an integrative primatology of consistent individual differences in behavior

In recent years, research on animal personality has exploded within the field of behavioral ecology. Consistent individual differences in behavior exist in a wide range of species, and these differences can have fitness consequences and influence several aspects of a species' ecology. In comparison to studies of other animals, however, there has been relatively little research on the behavioral ecology of primate personality. This is surprising given the large body of research within psychology and biomedicine showing that primate personality traits are heritable and linked to health and life history outcomes. In this article, I bring together theoretical perspectives on the ecology and evolution of animal personality with an integrative review of what we know about primate personality from studies conducted on captive, free‐ranging, and wild primates. Incorporating frameworks that emphasize consistency in behavior into primate behavioral ecology research holds promise for improving our understanding of primate behavioral evolution.     

Developing a schedule of normative denture treatment need

Objectives: The aim of the study is to assess the reliability and validity of a schedule to determine the normative denture treatment needs of older people. Design: The design used assessed inter‐examiner reliability (criterion validity), test‐retest reliability, and content and face validity of the schedule. Setting: The inter‐examiner reliability study took place in a Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, the remainder of the work took place in a community setting. Results: The results showed that the schedule in terms of an index performed well with reasonable inter‐examiner and test‐retest reliability. Difficulties however were encountered with regard to subjective judgements about denture quality and design; consequently, there was modest inter‐examiner agreement for stability, retention, and occlusal balance. Conclusions: The findings from this preliminary work suggest that the schedule may be useful in the assessment of normative denture treatment need in a community setting. Nevertheless more work will be required to obtain further information on the validity of this new assessment measure.     

Subjective assessment of chimpanzee (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pan troglodytes</Emphasis>) personality: reliability and stability of trait ratings

A 46-item rating scale was used to obtain personality ratings from 75 captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) from 7 zoological parks. Factor analysis revealed five personality dimensions similar to those found in previous research on primate personality: Agreeableness, Dominance, Neuroticism, Extraversion and Intellect. There were significant sex and age differences in ratings on these dimensions, with males rated more highly on Dominance and older chimpanzees rated as more agreeable but less extraverted than younger chimpanzees. Interobserver agreement for most individual trait items was high, but tended to be less reliable for trait terms expressing more subtle social or cognitive abilities. Personality ratings for one zoo were found to be largely stable across a 3-year period, but highlighted the effects of environmental factors on the expression of personality in captive chimpanzees.     

Personality research with non-human primates: theoretical formulation and methods

Since the earliest periods of primatology study, researchers have been aware of animals’ consistent individual differences in behavior or personality. Many papers have been published on this subject, but they lacked a common theoretical and methodological background. The present work is an attempt to provide such theoretical and methodological foundations to this field of biological science. In the theoretical formulation section, “biological study of personality” is first derived as an extension of the ethology paradigm, and non-human primate personality research is subsequently characterized as its strategic component. In the methodology section, brief reviews and discussions are presented on subjective and objective personality assessment methods with non-human primates with a reference to the reliability and validity concepts in human psychometrics. The work provides a theoretical framework and methodological suggestions for non-human primate personality research.     

Facial width-to-height ratio in chimpanzees: Links to age,sex and personality

Links between the human facial width-to-height ratio (fWHR) and aggressive behaviours have been debated in recent years. The question of whether fWHR is a cue to dominance could benefit from the study of primate species that are closely related to humans. We therefore built on the broad literature in humans, and recent research in capuchins, macaques and bonobos, and examined associations between fWHR in 131 captive chimpanzees from the United States, United Kingdom and Japan, and measures of age, sex, subspecies (Pan troglodytes verus, P. t. schweinfurthii, P. t. troglodytes), and six personality components (Dominance, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, and Openness). We found no evidence for sexual dimorphism in fWHR, as has been found in humans. We did find a positive relationship between fWHR and Dominance in P. t. verus, but only in adult females. This finding contrasts with that in humans, where dominant males have wider faces. We discuss these results in light of male-female differences in temporal rank stability, and in contrast to findings for bonobos, providing a useful perspective for fWHR research in humans.     

Sexual selection and animal personality

Consistent individual behavioural tendencies, termed “personalities”, have been identified in a wide range of animals. Functional explanations for personality have been proposed, but as yet, very little consideration has been given to a possible role for sexual selection in maintaining differences in personality and its stability within individuals. We provide an overview of the available literature on the role of personality traits in intrasexual competition and mate choice in both human and non‐human animals and integrate this into a framework for considering how sexual selection can generate and maintain personality. For this, we consider the evolution and maintenance of both main aspects of animal personality: inter‐individual variation and intra‐individual consistency.     

Validity and reliability of a visual scoring method for masticatory ability using test gummy jelly

Background: For quantitative evaluation of masticatory ability of the elderly patients, there should be a simple and reliable method without special techniques and instruments. Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine the validity and reliability of a visual scoring method for assessing masticatory performance. Materials and Methods: A 10‐stage scale for visually scoring was rated based on the range of the glucose concentration dissolved from comminuted jelly. Photographic images of comminuted jellies were produced as a standard material for each score. Fifty subjects were recruited as raters who graded the visual score for 50 photographic images of comminuted jellies on the screen of a lap‐top three times in random order. Results: There were strong correlations (rs = 0.911– 0.981, Spearman’s rank coefficient) between the actual scores determined from the glucose concentration and the visual scores graded by subjects in all three measurements. The intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) of the inter‐rater reliability and the ICCs of the intra‐rater reliability of the visual scoring ranged from 0.946 to 0.947 and from 0.860 to 0.987 in three measurements, respectively. Conclusions: These results indicated that the visual scoring method was valid and reliable for evaluation of masticatory performance.     

Testing for personality consistency across naturally occurring behavioral contexts in sanctuary chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

Personality is both a reflection of the bio-behavioral profile of individuals and a summary of how they typically interact with their physical and social world. Personality is usually defined as having distinct behavioral characteristics, which are assumed to be consistent over time and across contexts. Like other mammals, primates have individual differences in personality. Although temporal consistency is sometimes measured in primates, and contextual consistency is sometimes measured across experimental contexts, it is rare to measure both in the same individuals and outside of experimental settings. Here, we aim to measure both temporal and contextual consistency in chimpanzees, assessing their personality with behavioral observations from naturally occurring contexts (i.e., real-life settings). We measured personality-based behaviors in 22 sanctuary chimpanzees, in the contexts of feeding, affiliation, resting, and solitude, across two time periods, spanning 4 years. Of the 22 behaviors recorded, about 64% were consistent across two to four contexts and 50% were consistent over time. Ten behaviors loaded significantly onto three trait components: explorativeness, boldness-sociability, and anxiety-sociability, as revealed by factor analysis. Like others, we documented individual differences in the personality of chimpanzees based on reliably measured observations in real-life contexts. Furthermore, we demonstrated relatively strong, but not absolute, temporal, and contextual consistency in personality-based behaviors. We also found another aspect of individual differences in personality, specifically, the extent to which individual chimpanzees show consistency. Some individuals showed contextual and temporal consistency, whereas others show significant variation across behaviors, contexts, and/or time. We speculate that the relative degree of consistency in personality may vary within chimpanzees. It may be that different primate species vary in the extent to which individuals show consistency of personality traits. Our behavioral-based assessment can be used with wild populations, increasing the validity of personality studies, facilitating comparative studies and potentially being applicable to conservation efforts.     

Psychometric evaluation of the Orofacial Pain Scale for Non‐Verbal Individuals as a screening tool for orofacial pain in people with dementia

Objective

The aim of this study was to describe the psychometric evaluation of the Orofacial Pain Scale for Non‐Verbal Individuals (OPS‐NVI) as a screening tool for orofacial pain in people with dementia.

Background

The OPS‐NVI has recently been developed and needs psychometric evaluation for clinical use in people with dementia. The pain self‐report is imperative as a reference standard and can be provided by people with mild‐to‐moderate cognitive impairment.

Methods

The presence of orofacial pain during rest, drinking, chewing and oral hygiene care was observed in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia using the OPS‐NVI. Participants who were considered to present a reliable self‐report were asked about pain presence, and in all participants, the oral health was examined by a dentist for the presence of potential painful conditions. After item‐reduction, inter‐rater reliability and criterion validity were determined.

Results

The presence of orofacial pain in this population was low (0%‐10%), resulting in an average Positive Agreement of 0%‐100%, an average Negative Agreement of 77%‐100%, a sensitivity of 0%‐100% and a specificity of 66%‐100% for the individual items of the OPS‐NVI. At the same time, the presence of oral problems, such as ulcers, tooth root remnants and caries was high (64.5%).

Conclusion

The orofacial pain presence in this MCI and dementia population was low, resulting in low scores for average Positive Agreement and sensitivity and high scores for average Negative Agreement and specificity. Therefore, the OPS‐NVI in its current form cannot be recommended as a screening tool for orofacial pain in people with MCI and dementia. However, the inter‐rater reliability and criterion validity of the individual items in this study provide more insight for the further adjustment of the OPS‐NVI for diagnostic use. Notably, oral health problems were frequently present, although no pain was reported or observed, indicating that oral health problems cannot be used as a new reference standard for orofacial pain, and a regular oral examination by care providers and oral hygiene care professionals remains indispensable.     

Role of the nonhuman primate for research related to women's health

This overview of the current status of medical problems that affect women is related to current studies on pathophysiology and therapeutic interventions using nonhuman primates to demonstrate the utility of the primate model for the study of disease processes in women. The current medical literature on women's health is compared with the literature on nonhuman primate research. The findings reviewed in the articles of ILAR Journal Volume 45 Issue 2 of 2004 are evaluated in the context of the scope and problems associated with disease entities in women. Nonhuman primate research with known information regarding women's disease is discussed, and the utility of the animal model for the study of human disease is highlighted, based on its significant relevance due to similarities of nonhuman primate and human subjects' physiology, metabolism, and responses to therapeutic interventions. Additional advantages of the animal model include the ability to control the experimental environment and the capacity to perform chronic study procedures. These findings allow us to utilize the nonhuman primate as the most relevant model in the animal world for the study of human disease processes.     

Personality Consistency in Dogs: A Meta-Analysis

Personality, or consistent individual differences in behavior, is well established in studies of dogs. Such consistency implies predictability of behavior, but some recent research suggests that predictability cannot be assumed. In addition, anecdotally, many dog experts believe that ‘puppy tests’ measuring behavior during the first year of a dog''s life are not accurate indicators of subsequent adult behavior. Personality consistency in dogs is an important aspect of human-dog relationships (e.g., when selecting dogs suitable for substance-detection work or placement in a family). Here we perform the first comprehensive meta-analysis of studies reporting estimates of temporal consistency of dog personality. A thorough literature search identified 31 studies suitable for inclusion in our meta-analysis. Overall, we found evidence to suggest substantial consistency (r = 0.43). Furthermore, personality consistency was higher in older dogs, when behavioral assessment intervals were shorter, and when the measurement tool was exactly the same in both assessments. In puppies, aggression and submissiveness were the most consistent dimensions, while responsiveness to training, fearfulness, and sociability were the least consistent dimensions. In adult dogs, there were no dimension-based differences in consistency. There was no difference in personality consistency in dogs tested first as puppies and later as adults (e.g., ‘puppy tests’) versus dogs tested first as puppies and later again as puppies. Finally, there were no differences in consistency between working versus non-working dogs, between behavioral codings versus behavioral ratings, and between aggregate versus single measures. Implications for theory, practice, and future research are discussed.     

Assessing chimpanzee personality and subjective well‐being in Japan

We tested whether the cultural background of raters influenced ratings of chimpanzee personality. Our study involved comparing personality and subjective well‐being ratings of 146 chimpanzees in Japan that were housed in zoos, research institutes, and a retirement sanctuary to ratings of chimpanzees in US and Australian zoos. Personality ratings were made on a translated and expanded version of a questionnaire used to rate chimpanzees in the US and Australia. Subjective well‐being ratings were made on a translated version of a questionnaire used to rate chimpanzees in the US and Australia. The mean interrater reliabilities of the 43 original adjectives did not markedly differ between the present sample and the original sample of 100 zoo chimpanzees in the US. Interrater reliabilities of these samples were highly correlated, suggesting that their rank order was preserved. Comparison of the factor structures for the Japanese sample and for the original sample of chimpanzees in US zoos indicated that the overall structure was replicated and that the Dominance, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness domains clearly generalized. Consistent with earlier studies, older chimpanzees had higher Dominance and lower Extraversion and Openness scores. Correlations between the six domain scores and subjective well‐being were comparable to those for chimpanzees housed in the US and Australia. These findings suggest that chimpanzee personality ratings are not affected by the culture of the raters. Am. J. Primatol. 71:283–292, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The what and where of primate field research may be failing primate conservation

With approximately 30% of nonhuman primate species listed as critically endangered, the window of opportunity to conserve primates is closing fast. In this article, we focus on the degree to which publications in field primatology are biased in favor of particular taxa and field sites. We examined more than 29,000 peer‐reviewed articles and identified 876 field visits to 349 field sites. We found a highly clumped distribution by site and species. We also examined publication ethical statements and the extent to which they acknowledged local human communities (<5%). Due to a lack of consistency across publications, we provide recommendations for improving ethical statements and for evaluating research impact. Given the plight of primate biodiversity, these results suggest broader coverage of primate species and geographies, as well as more attention to the local human communities whose support is necessary if the intent is to have primate species in the wild in the 22nd century.     

Development and Initial Validation of an Obesity‐specific Quality‐of‐life Measure for Children: Sizing Me Up

The present study describes the development and initial validation of a new obesity‐specific, self‐report measure of health‐related quality of life (HRQOL) for children aged 5–13 years. Participants included 141 obese children (mean age = 9.2 years, 67% female, 55% black, mean zBMI = 2.52) and their primary caregivers. Children completed Sizing Me Up (obesity‐specific HRQOL) and the PedsQL (generic HRQOL). Item content for Sizing Me Up was based on the published child obesity and HRQOL literatures and expert opinion. Items use phrasing to orient children to respond to questions in context of his/her size (e.g., “were teased by other kids because of your size”). Caregivers completed Sizing Them Up, a parallel parent‐proxy, obesity‐specific HRQOL measure. Initial psychometric evaluation of Sizing Me Up was completed by conducting a factor analysis and determining internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and convergent and construct validity. Sizing Me Up is a 22‐item measure with five scales (i.e., Emotional Functioning, Physical Functioning, Social Avoidance, Positive Social Attributes, and Teasing/Marginalization) that account for 57% of the variance and a total HRQOL score. Internal consistency coefficients range from 0.68 to 0.85. Test–retest reliabilities range from 0.53 to 0.78. Good convergent validity was demonstrated with the PedsQL (rs = 0.35–0.65) and the parent‐proxy Sizing Them Up (rs = 0.22–0.44). Sizing Me Up represents the first obesity‐specific HRQOL measure developed specifically for younger school‐aged children (aged 5–13 years) with preliminary evidence of strong psychometric properties that likely has both clinical and research utility in a variety of settings.     

The development of a method for functional assessment of dentures

Aims: To design and validate a method of assessing complete dentures from a functional standpoint. Subjects: A random sample of 40 complete denture wearers took part in the study. Setting: A university clinical department of prosthetic dentistry. Intervention: We undertook a pilot study to refine the protocol and criteria. All participants and their dentures were examined by two authors independently, with no prior knowledge of the patients'complaints. Design: We defined nine clinical factors of functional quality and applied criteria with binary scoring. We analysed the scores for these factors for inter‐rater reliability. Results: The method proved simple to apply and took less than 5 minutes to complete. The inter‐examiner agreement for all factors was 86% to 100% giving Kappa scores of 0.64 to 1.00 (all Good or Very Good). Conclusions: This study successfully demonstrates that the technique, which we call the Functional Assessment of Dentures (FAD), can give good inter‐examiner reliability. It can therefore be used separately as a routine diagnostic tool and to investigate the relationship between denture qualities and functional ‘outcome’ such as difficulty eating or dietary selection.     

圈养马麝的个性分类

本研究在甘肃兴隆山国家级自然保护区马麝繁育场展开,分别于2012年7月和2013年8月,针对374只圈养马麝,采用基于量表的个性评价法进行评价调查。结果表明:可建立包含17个个性项目的圈养马麝个性量表,因子分析显示每个项目公因子方差和载荷均大于0. 4,各因子累计贡献率为60. 33%,表明此量表具有较好的结构效度。此外Cronbach’sα系数为0. 787,表明量表具有较高的内部一致性信度,量表设计合理;因子分析和聚类分析结果显示,可将圈养马麝划分为五大个性维度:侵略性、社会性、刻板性、温顺性、活跃性。研究发现,圈养马麝个性维度与野生个体的个性类型划分存在差异,主要是受圈养条件和人为干扰等影响。圈养马麝个性量表和五大个性维度的建立对指导马麝繁育管理具有重要实践价值,填补了马麝个性研究的空缺,并为进一步进行麝类动物个性研究奠定了基础。另外,此类个性层次研究方法具有较好区分度,可为其他动物个性的初期研究提供参考。     

Testing for Validity and Reliability in Cross-Cultural Research

A set of procedures is offered for assessing interraler reliability and certain aspects of validity of codes in cross-cultural studies. The method assumes that at least two independent raters have coded more than one trait. Each trait coded by one rater is correlated with each trait coded by a second, and all the codings by a single rater are intercorrelated with each other. The results are presented in a multitrait-multi-rater matrix. From this matrix it is possible to determine the interrater reliability and discriminant validity of trails in addition to a higher order concept based on pairs of traits.