Effect of Crossbreeding on the Chemical Composition and Biological Characteristics of Tunisian New Olive Progenies

Olive fruit characteristics (weight, pulp/stone ratio, and oil and moisture content) and the iodine value (IV) of 31 new olive progenies (Olea europaea L.) were determined. To evaluate the effect of the genetic variability on these parameters, the new olive progenies, obtained through cross‐pollination between Tunisian and Mediterranean olive cultivars, were planted in a selected grove guaranteeing the homogeneity of the pedologic and climatic conditions. A strong genetic effect and significant differences between genotypes were obtained for the IV and the fruit characteristics evaluated. Discriminant analysis was used to classify the new progenies as distinct from each other, based on their IV, and their pulp and stone weight. An almost full discrimination of the olives from different genotypes was only achieved when the fruit characteristics (pulp and stone weight) and the IV data were analyzed together.     

Effect of Controlled Crossing on the Triglyceride and Fatty Acid Composition of Virgin Olive Oils

Our study reports the triglyceride (triacylglycerol, TAG) composition of five new Tunisian virgin olive oil cultivars obtained through controlled crossings of the cultivar (cv.) Chemlali Sfax. These cultivars have been selected among a progeny of 500 olive descendants, based on an evaluation of the fatty‐acid (FA) composition of their oils. Among these samples, two were derived from the crossing with the cv. Sigoise as pollinator (SM634) or pollen acceptor (SM1110) and the others from the crossing with the cv. Meski as pollen acceptor (SM513, SM514, and SM517). The five descendants were characterized by a good fat value, a balanced FA composition, and a high content of triolein, varying between 26.9 (SM514) and 45.46% (SM1110). They had an improved FA composition as compared to that of the cv. Chemlali Sfax and their fruits were slightly bigger. The principal component analysis suggested that the TAG variables were more suitable than the total FAs for an optimum classification of the cultivar samples analyzed. The cultivars obtained through the crossing with the cv. Sigoise (as pollen acceptor or pollinator) had a more favorable composition of FAs and TAG than those obtained through the crossing with the cv. Meski, which indicated that genetic factors had the most important influence on the quality of the virgin olive oils.     

Comparison of the chemical composition and the organoleptic profile of virgin olive oil from two wild and two cultivated Tunisian Olea europaea

With the aim to select new olive cultivars with superior physical and chemical properties than the cultivar Chemlali Sfax, the present study focused on the comparison of the chemical composition and the sensory profile of the virgin olive oils (VOOs) of two wild olive trees (Oleasters K and M) with those of VOOs obtained from Chemlali Sfax and Neb Jmel olive cultivars, all growing in the coastal region of Tunisia. Despite the variability in the chemical composition (fatty acids, pigments, and phenolic and volatile compounds) and the organoleptic profile of the VOOs of the oleasters and the cultivars, the quality indices (free fatty acids, peroxide value, and spectrophotometric indices K232 and K270) as well as the fatty acid composition of all VOOs studied met the commercial standards. Both the α-tocopherol and phenol contents varied between the genotypes. The Neb Jmel and Oleaster K VOOs had more than two times higher total phenol levels than the Chemlali Sfax and Oleaster M VOOs. Also the contents of volatile compounds differed between the olive oils studied. Chemlali Sfax and Oleaster K oils were more abundant in aldehydes, whereas Oleaster M VOO had higher contents of alcohols. These results were confirmed by a sensorial analysis showing that the later oil was deprived for consumption despite its abundance in α-tocopherol. In conclusion, the oleasters studied revealed to be interesting, since they produced oils with good quality characteristics in terms of minor compounds (phenols and volatiles) compared to the Chemlali Sfax cultivar.     

Olive phenology as a sensitive indicator of future climatic warming in the Mediterranean

Experimental and modelling work suggests a strong dependence of olive flowering date on spring temperatures. Since airborne pollen concentrations reflect the flowering phenology of olive populations within a radius of 50 km, they may be a sensitive regional indicator of climatic warming. We assessed this potential sensitivity with phenology models fitted to flowering dates inferred from maximum airborne pollen data. Of four models tested, a thermal time model gave the best fit for Montpellier, France, and was the most effective at the regional scale, providing reasonable predictions for 10 sites in the western Mediterranean. This model was forced with replicated future temperature simulations for the western Mediterranean from a coupled ocean‐atmosphere general circulation model (GCM). The GCM temperatures rose by 4·5 °C between 1990 and 2099 with a 1% per year increase in greenhouse gases, and modelled flowering date advanced at a rate of 6·2 d per °C. The results indicated that this long‐term regional trend in phenology might be statistically significant as early as 2030, but with marked spatial variation in magnitude, with the calculated flowering date between the 1990s and 2030s advancing by 3–23 d. Future monitoring of airborne olive pollen may therefore provide an early biological indicator of climatic warming in the Mediterranean.     

Influence of canopy fruit location on morphological,histochemical and biochemical changes in two oil olive cultivars

The influence of different irradiance conditions was evaluated under natural solar radiation by comparing well-exposed (in) and shaded fruit (out) in canopies of olive trees (Olea europaea L). Over a 2-year period, from 50 days after full bloom up to harvest time, “in” and “out” olive samples of two genotypes (“Frantoio Millennio” and “Coratina 5/19”) were periodically collected. Morphological, histochemical, and biochemical analysis were performed to study the changes on fruit morphometric traits, oil body accumulation, and β-glucosidase enzyme activity. Some parameters were modified by shading inside the canopy in which the proportion of incident photosynthetically active radiation intercepted by the crop was 47%. Shaded fruits developed at slow rate and were characterized by late darkgoing time, reduced size, with a tendency toward oblong shape. The rapid histochemical procedure proposed to estimate the oil body accumulation during fruit ripening showed that a reduced irradiance caused a decrease in oil body density. The canopy position influenced, in a different way, the β-glucosidase activity in relation to the fruit-ripening stage in both genotypes. These findings indicate that providing an adequate and uniform lighting of the olive canopy by careful choices of orchard management practices can be a key factor for several yield components.     

Effect of different olive oil-derived antioxidants (hydroxytyrosol and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylglycol) on the quality of frozen-thawed ram sperm

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of the addition of different concentrations of two olive oil-derived antioxidants, hydroxytyrosol (3,4-dihydroxyphenylethanol, HT) and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylglycol (DHPG), on ovine semen during the freezing-thawing process. Sperm was collected, pooled and diluted with commercial extenders and then divided into aliquots supplemented with different concentrations (10 μg/ml, 30 μg/ml, 50 μg/ml and 70 μg/ml) of HT, DHPG and a mixture (MIX) of both antioxidants. A control group, without antioxidant, was also prepared. Sperm motility, viability, acrosome integrity, mitochondrial membrane potential and lipid peroxidation (LPO) were assessed. The results showed that frozen-thawed ram spermatozoa exhibited lower values for motility, membrane integrity, acrosome and mitochondrial membrane potential than fresh samples (P ≤ 0.01). However, when antioxidants were added, thawed spermatozoa exhibited relatively low LPO, recording values similar to fresh spermatozoa; by contrast, the control group of frozen-thawed spermatozoa without antioxidants exhibited significantly higher LPO (P ≤ 0.01). The addition of a HT+DHPG mixture (MIX) had a negative impact on sperm membrane and acrosome integrity, suggesting that a pure antioxidant supplementation has the potential to offer superior results. In conclusion, HT and DHPG exhibited a positive effect on the frozen-thawed spermatozoa inasmuch as they reduced the LPO. These olive oil-derived antioxidants have the potential to improve frozen-thawed sperm quality, although further studies should be carried out to analyse the antioxidant effect at different times after thawing.     

‘陇东’紫花苜蓿原生质体最佳分离条件

以‘陇东’紫花苜蓿（Medicago sativa L.cv.‘Longdong’）下胚轴愈伤组织为材料,研究酶液组合、酶解时间、酶液渗透压、愈伤组织继代培养时间及预处理措施对原生质体分离效果的影响。结果表明：获得产量最高（8.8×105个·g-1）、活力最高（88.55%）的原生质体最佳酶液组合为2%纤维素酶＋0.5%果胶酶＋0.3%崩溃酶、酶解时间为10h、酶液渗透压即甘露醇浓度为0.55mol·L-1,愈伤继代培养天数为12d、预处理措施为4℃、黑暗条件下放置24h。     

中国北亚热带油橄榄(城固32)开花生物学特性研究

为研究北亚热带内陆地区油橄榄（Olea europaea L.）开花物候、开花样式及花器官特征,探讨其有性繁殖系统的特点。试验对西秦岭南坡地区油橄榄（城固32）的开花生物学进行研究,统计开花进程,雄花和两性花在花序上的着生位置和数量,测定雄花和两性花形态指标并切片观察,电镜扫描分析雄花与两性花花粉粒。结果表明：（1）在北亚热带北缘内陆气候条件下油橄榄花期集中在5月,单株花期15~20 d,盛花期持续4~6 d;（2）油橄榄具有雄全同株的性系统且花器官较小,雄花及两性花都具有正常发育的雄蕊。通过制作石蜡切片观察,发现两性花的雌蕊正常发育,而雄花只有较小的子房和败育的柱头;（3）雌蕊是两种花型花器官生物量差异的主要部位,两性花雌蕊的生物量明显比雄花大（P<0.01）,树体分化出雄花投入的资源更少;（4）雄花与两性花在花粉量、花粉粒大小上差异不显著,在着生位置上,花序轴顶花全部为两性花,雄花出现在花序轴的中部和基部的几率分别是21.13%和30.77%。油橄榄品种城固32具有典型的雄全同株现象,雄花更倾向于在花序上出现的位置在行使它雄性功能方面并无优势可言,而且雄花花粉粒在数量、活力方面也没有优势,但是雄花的出现增加了花粉数量和P/O值,提高了植株的雄性适合度,雄花的出现也降低了两性花落花导致的树体资源浪费,保障其在资源有限的环境中能够繁殖最大化。     

Historical biogeography of olive domestication (Olea europaea L.) as revealed by geometrical morphometry applied to biological and archaeological material

Aim This study intends to improve our understanding of historical biogeography of olive domestication in the Mediterranean Basin, particularly in the north-western area. Location Investigations were performed simultaneously on olive stones from extant wild populations, extant cultivated varieties from various Mediterranean countries, and archaeological assemblages of Spanish, French and Italian settlements. Methods A combination of morphometrics (traditional and geometrical) allowed us to study both the size and shape of endocarp structure. Concerning shape, a size-standardized method coupled with fitted polynomial regression analysis was performed. Results We found morphological criteria for discriminating between wild and cultivated olive cultivars, and established patterns of morphological variation of olive material according to the geographical origin (for extant material) and to the age of the olive forms (for archaeological material). Levels of morphological convergences and divergences between wild olive populations and cultivated varieties are presented as evidence. Main conclusions Morphological changes of endocarps of olive under domestication at both geographical and chronological scales provide new criteria for the identification of olive cultivars. They allow to determine the origins of cultivated forms created and/or introduced in the north-western Mediterranean regions and to understand how human migrations affected the rest of the Western Mediterranean regions. A model of diffusion of olive cultivation is proposed. It shows evidence of an indigenous origin of the domestication process, which is currently recognized in the north-western area since the Bronze Age.     

Olea europaea leaf (Ph.Eur.) extract as well as several of its isolated phenolics inhibit the gout-related enzyme xanthine oxidase

In Mediterranean folk medicine Olea europaea L. leaf (Ph.Eur.) preparations are used as a common remedy for gout. In this in vitro study kinetic measurements were performed on both an 80% ethanolic (v/v) Olea europaea leaf dry extract (OLE) as well as on nine of its typical phenolic constituents in order to investigate its possible inhibitory effects on xanthine oxidase (XO), an enzyme well known to contribute significantly to this pathological process. Dixon and Lineweaver-Burk plot analysis were used to determine K_i values and the inhibition mode for the isolated phenolics, which were analysed by RP-HPLC for standardisation of OLE. The standardised OLE as well as some of the tested phenolics significantly inhibited the activity of XO. Among these, the flavone aglycone apigenin exhibited by far the strongest effect on XO with a K_i value of 0.52 μM. In comparison, the known synthetic XO inhibitor allopurinol, used as a reference standard, showed a K_i of 7.3 μM. Although the phenolic secoiridoid oleuropein, the main ingredient of the extract (24.8%), had a considerable higher K_i value of 53.0 μM, it still displayed a significant inhibition of XO. Furthermore, caffeic acid (K_i of 11.5 μM; 1.89% of the extract), luteolin-7-O-β-d-glucoside (K_i of 15.0 μM; 0.86%) and luteolin (K_i of 2.9 μM; 0.086%) also contributed significantly to the XO inhibiting effect of OLE. For oleuropein, a competitive mode of inhibition was found, while all other active substances displayed a mixed mode of inhibition. Tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol, verbascoside, and apigenin-7-O-β-d-glucoside, which makes up for 0.3% of the extract, were inactive in all tested concentrations. Regarding the pharmacological in vitro effect of apigenin-7-O-β-d-glucoside, it has to be considered that it is transformed into the active apigenin aglycone in the mammalian body, thus also contributing substantially to the anti-gout activity of olive leaves. For the first time, this study provides a rational basis for the traditional use of olive leaves against gout in Mediterranean folk medicine.     

Composition of rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa thunb.) hydrolate according to the time of distillation

Rugosa rose (Rosa rugosa Thunb.) is one of the most common rose species in Poland. It has mild soil and climate requirements and is resistant to low temperatures. Rugosa rose hips are a valuable raw material used in food and pharmaceutical industries, while flowers and petals may be a source of fragrant products, such as essential oil and hydrolate. The main aim of this study was to verify usefulness of dried R. rugosa petals for essential oil and hydrolate production. We also assessed the use of rugosa rose petals remaining after oil distillation for hydrolate production.The R. rugosa dried petals immersed in water were subjected to simple distillation and five fractions of primary rose hydrolate were obtained. In parallel, essential oil from the second sample of petals was obtained by hydrodistillation in Clevenger-type apparatus. The distillation residue was used for obtaining four fractions of secondary hydrolate. The volatiles from hydrolate fractions were isolated by liquid–liquid extraction with diethyl ether. The essential oil and hydrolate volatiles were analyzed by GC–FID–MS.Hydrolate fractions contained similar amounts of volatiles (20–30 mg/L) with the exception of the first fraction of primary hydrolate (60 mg/L). β-Phenylethanol, citronellol, geraniol, and nerol were the main volatile constituents of primary hydrolate. β-Phenylethanol, citronellic acid, and geranic acid were the main volatile constituents of secondary hydrolate. The content of alcohols decreased, while the content of monoterpene esters (citronellyl, neryl, and geranyl acetate) as well as monoterpene acids (citronellic, neric, and geranic acid) increased in successive fractions of both hydrolates.The scent and composition of essential oil and hydrolate obtained from R. rugosa petals were similar to those of rose oil and rose water produced from damask rose (Rosa damascena Mill.). This proves, that rugosa rose distillation products may become an alternative to fragrant damask rose products.     

Genetic relationships in the olive (Olea europaea L.) reflect multilocal selection of cultivars

One hundred and two olive RAPD profiles were sampled from all around the Mediterranean Basin. Twenty four clusters of RAPD profiles were shown in the dendrogram based on the Ward’s minimum variance algorithm using chi-square distances. Factorial discriminant analyses showed that RAPD profiles were correlated with the use of the fruits and the country or region of origin of the cultivars. This suggests that cultivar selection has occurred in different genetic pools and in different areas. Mitochondrial DNA RFLP analyses were also performed. These mitotypes supported the conclusion also that multilocal olive selection has occurred. This prediction for the use of cultivars will help olive growers to choose new foreign cultivars for testing them before an eventual introduction if they are well adapted to local conditions. Received: 10 April 2000 / Accepted: 15 May 2000     

Lipid components of olive oil from Tunisian Cv. Sayali: Characterization and authenticity

The analysis of the total lipid fraction from the Sayali variety of olive oil was accomplished in the present investigation. Glyceridic, unsaponifiable and flavour fractions of the oil were isolated and identified using several analytical methods. Chromatographic techniques have proven to be suitable for these determinations, especially capillary gas chromatography. Gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry was successfully used to identify sterols, triterpenes alcohols, 4-monomethylsterols, aliphatic alcohols and aroma compounds in our samples. Furthermore, solid phase microextraction was used to isolate volatiles from the total lipid fraction. Results from the quantitative characterization of Sayali olive oil showed that oleic acid (77.4%) and triolein (47.4%) were the dominant glyceridic components. However, the main compounds of the unsaponifiable fraction were β-sitosterol (147.5 mg/100 g oil), 24-methylene cycloartenol (146.4 mg/100 g oil) and hexacosanol (49.3 mg/100 g oil). Moreover, results showed that the aldehydic compounds were the major flavours present in Sayali olive oil.     

下田菊挥发油化学成分的研究

利用水蒸汽蒸馏法、两相溶剂萃取法提取下田菊(Adenostemma lavenia(L.)O.Ktze.)地上部分的挥发油,提取10h的挥发油得率为0.990%。采用毛细管气相色谱-质谱联用(GC-MS)技术结合计算机检索对该挥发油的化学成分进行了分析和鉴定,采用色谱峰面积归一化法计算了各成分的相对含量。从挥发油中共分离出36个峰,鉴定了其中的35种成分,占总量的99.56%,其中α-荜澄茄油烯(32.62%)、石竹烯(24.97%)和γ-榄香烯(5.53%)为主要成分,此外α-石竹烯(3.97%)、α-恰米烯(3.57%)、双环[4,3,0]-7-亚甲基-2,4,4-三甲基-2-乙烯基-壬烷(3.41%)、γ-萜品烯(3.07%)、d-柠檬烯(2.57%)、α-蒎烯(2.49%)及2-蒈烯(2.28%)的含量也较高。     

Contribution of the adaxial and abaxial surfaces of olive leaves to photosynthesis

Leaves of olive cultivars Frantoio and Maurino were irradiated with different irradiances from above, from below, or simultaneously from both directions to determine the contribution of the abaxial and adaxial leaf surfaces to photosynthesis. In both cultivars, irradiation of both sides of the leaf caused increases in net photosynthetic rate (P _N) and apparent quantum yield compared to irradiating only one surface with the equal photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), but the PPFD needed to saturate P _N decreased. At high and medium PPFD the P _N determined at irradiating both leaf surfaces was less than the sum obtained at irradiation of only the upper or the lower surface with the same PPFD. At PPFD higher than 1000 μmol m-2 s-1 in cv. Frantoio and 1200 μmol m-2 s-1 in cv. Maurino, P _N did not vary. At low PPFD (<200 μmol m-2 s-1), P _N at irradiating the adaxial and abaxial leaf surfaces simultaneously was about the sum of the values obtained by irradiating the upper and lower surfaces separately. Consequently the compensation irradiance was reduced from about 50 μmol m-2 s-1 to about 30 μmol m-2 s-1 when irradiating both leaf surfaces. The natural leaf orientation of the olive cultivar influenced the utilization of radiant energy by the abaxial surface. This revised version was published online in September 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Abnormalities induced by agricultural pesticides in the microsporogenesis of olive tree (Olea europaea L.) cultivars

The study evaluated the microsporogenesis of olive trees subjected to different agricultural pesticide applications during flowering. Inflorescences of cultivars Arbequina and MGS GRAP541 were subjected to agricultural pesticides: mineral oil, neem oil, dimethoate and deltamethrin. The floral buds were fixed in Carnoy for the microsporogenesis analysis and in Karnovsky for scanning electron microscopy. The slides were prepared by squash technique and staining with propionic carmine. The pollen viability was determined by Alexander’s stain and in vitro germination. Results show that the quantification of abnormalities in meiosis in the two cultivars caused significant effect among the treatments, being that all differed statistically from the control group. Both methods showed a higher percentage of viable pollens in the control treatment and lower percentage of viability with the agricultural pesticides. The method of pollen viability by staining presented the highest averages of viable pollens, but when compared together, both methods presented a strongly related positive linear correlation. It was concluded that the used chemical products increased the percentage of chromosomal abnormalities during microsporogenesis, which interfered in the pollen viability of the two analyzed cultivars. The product deltamethrin caused the strongest effect on meiosis and on pollen viability.     

Primary domestication and early uses of the emblematic olive tree: palaeobotanical, historical and molecular evidence from the Middle East

Our knowledge of the origins of olive tree domestication in the Middle East and on the processes governing its extension and persistence in different vegetation types from prehistory through antiquity to modern times derives from diverse sources, spanning the biological sciences to the humanities. Nonetheless, it lacks a robust overview that may lead to floating interpretations. This is especially true in the Middle East, considered as the cradle of agriculture, and where the evolutionary history of this emblematic tree is intertwined with that of civilizations. Olive fruit, oil and wood have been, since Prehistoric times, characteristic products of the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea. In the domestic economy of these countries, the olive tree gradually became a traditional tree crop since the first oil extraction, through the emergence of regional commerce that accompanied the rise and fall of early Near-Middle Eastern urbanism, until the development of modern trade, with an oil production estimated at circa 3000000 tons per year. The rising importance of the olive tree in human life has turned the tree into an endless source of fascination in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean, a symbol and a sacred tree, widely cited in the Bibles, the Koran, and in ancient literature. Here we argue that advances in radiocarbon chronology, palaeobotany, genetics, and archaeology-history have profoundly refined the history of olive trees in the Middle East. This review shows that the heartland of primary olive domestication must be enlarged to the Levant and not only focus on the Jordan Valley. The domestication of the olive tree is a long and ongoing process, linked to the early production of oil and the development of the olive trade. We also suggest that the olive tree became a particular icon, a sacred tree, during the Biblical period in the Levant.     

加工因素对橄榄叶提取物抗氧化活性的影响

研究在橄榄叶加工过程中,加工因素对橄榄叶提取物中抗氧化活性的影响,这些因素包括:(1)干燥方式(微波炉干燥,烘箱干燥,低温冷冻干燥和熏蒸及烘箱结合干燥);(2)提取方式(超声波提取和搅拌式提取);(3)提取溶剂的酸度(pH 4、7、10).实验将总多酚含量和清除自由基活性作为衡量提取物抗氧化有效成分和活性的指标.研究结果表明,通过低温冷冻干燥、调节pH至4和采用超声波提取的方式,橄榄叶提取物中的抗氧化有效成分最多.本研究对橄榄叶等天然植物中抗氧化成分提取工艺的制定具有参考价值.     

不同土壤环境对黄花蒿生长和青蒿素含量的影响研究

通过田间小区试验,比较研究了施肥与不施肥条件下,4种土壤环境（沙土、旱地土、水稻土和棕色石灰土）对黄花蒿的生长、生物量分配和青蒿素含量的影响。结果表明：黄花蒿对土壤养分的适应性较强,在沙土、旱地土、水稻土和石灰土上均能生长发育,养分水平低时,分配更多的生物量到根,根生物量分数和根/冠比增大;养分水平高时,分配更多的生物量到叶,叶生物量分数增加。黄花蒿的生长和青蒿素含量显著受土壤养分的影响,不施肥时,石灰土和水稻土栽培黄花蒿的株高、地径、总生物量、叶生物量和青蒿素含量显著大于旱地土,而旱地土又显著大于沙土。但在施肥条件下,以上参数不同土壤间无显著差异,且显著高于不施肥。因此,只要根据土壤养分状况合理施肥,黄花蒿在不同养分土壤栽培均能获得较高的青蒿素产量。