Japanese barnyard millet (Echinochloa utilis,poaceae) in Japan

Two species are included in barnyard millet:Echinochloa utilis andE. frumentacea. These differ from each other in their genomic constitution and phylogeny. The former species originated fromE. crus-galli probably in eastern Asia, and is grown in Japan, Korea, and the northeastern part of China; the latter originated fromE. colona probably in tropical Asia, and is grown in Pakistan, India, and Nepal. “Japanese barnyard millet” is suggested as a suitable English common name forE. utilis; “Indian barnyard millet,” forE. frumentacea. In the past, Japanese barnyard millet was important in Japan as the staple food crop in districts where soil, weather conditions and irrigation systems were not suitable for paddy rice cultivation. When the rice crop suffered serious cool weather damage, the millet relieved people from starvation, especially in northeastern Japan. But the acreage devoted to the millet gradually decreased during and after the 1880s. Only the northern part of Iwate Prefecture is an exclusive Japanese barnyard millet cropping region at present. The breeding of cool- weather- resistant rice varieties and improvements in rice- growing techniques are mainly responsible for the decrease in acreage of the millet.     

Regeneration of a metal tolerant grass Echinochloa colona via somatic embryogenesis from suspension culture

An efficient protocol was developed for in vitro plant regeneration via somatic embryogenesis from cell suspension cultures of metal tolerant grass Echinochloa colona (L.) Link. Callus was obtained by culturing leaf base on MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mg dm^-3 of 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and 2.0 mg dm^-3 of 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA). Cell suspensions were initiated and established in MS liquid medium containing 0.5 mg dm^-3 BAP, 1.0 mg dm^-3 NAA and 2.0 mg dm^-3 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D). A reduction in the concentration of 2,4-D to 0.5 mg dm^-3 induced formation of somatic embryos. The embryos developed and grew into normal plants in the presence of half strength MS medium without growth regulators. The regenerated plants were hardened in the greenhouse and subsequently grown in the open. This system may be also used for isolation and culture of protoplasts as a first step in somatic hybridization. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Invasion of the cosmopolitan species Echinochloa colona into herbaceous vegetation of a tropical wetland system

The negative effects of alien plant species on ecosystem structure and functions are increasingly recognised, and efforts to control these species are vital to restore degraded ecosystems and preserve biodiversity. However, we lack a full understanding of factors that determine alien species invasions along spatial gradients in herbaceous vegetation of tropical systems. We therefore examined the effects of community properties, environmental variables and human-related disturbance factors on the invasion of the alien grass Echinochloa colona (L.) Link at small- and large scales in the Kilombero Valley wetland, Tanzania. Generalized additive mixed models showed that E. colona abundance on a small scale was negatively related to above-ground biomass and evenness of resident species, whereas E. colona abundance was positively related to grazing intensity. On a large scale, biomass (negatively related to E. colona abundance) and distance to river (positive) were important in explaining E. colona abundance. These findings support the assertion that different factors may contribute to the invasion of alien plant species at different spatial scales, as also reported in many temperate systems. Overall, our results show that successful invasion of alien species is a function of plant community properties, human-related disturbance and favourable environmental conditions. Effective management strategies should consider mitigations that can increase the biomass and evenness of native species and a reduction of grazing pressure to restore the wetland and conserve biodiversity.     

Effect of genotype and environment on branching in weedy green millet (Setaria viridis) and domesticated foxtail millet (Setaria italica) (Poaceae)

Many domesticated crops are derived from species whose life history includes weedy characteristics, such as the ability to vary branching patterns in response to environmental conditions. However, domesticated crop plants are characterized by less variable plant architecture, as well as by a general reduction in vegetative branching compared to their progenitor species. Here we examine weedy green millet and its domesticate foxtail millet that differ in the number of tillers (basal branches) and axillary branches along each tiller. Branch number in F(2:3) progeny of a cross between the two species varies with genotype, planting density, and other environmental variables, with significant genotype-environment interactions (GEI). This is shown by a complex pattern of reaction norms and by variation in the pattern of significant quantitative trait loci (QTL) amongst trials. Individual and joint analyses of high and low density trials indicate that most QTL have significant GEI. Dominance and epistasis also explain some variation in branching. Likely candidate genes underlying the QTL (based on map position and phenotypic effect) include teosinte branched1 and barren stalk1. Phytochrome B, which has been found to affect response to shading in other plants, explains little or no variation. Much variation in branching is explained by QTL that do not have obvious candidate genes from maize or rice.     

Molecular characterization of spontaneous and induced mutations in the three homoeologous waxy genes of Japanese barnyard millet [Echinochloa esculenta (A. Braun) H. Scholz]

Japanese barnyard millet is an important food source in East Asian countries. However its crumbly texture limits desirability and consumption. Controlling amylose level in the endosperm is important to improve the eating quality of the millet. Because it is well known that the waxy gene determines the amylose level in the endosperm, we conducted a molecular analysis of the gene. Segregation analysis revealed that wild-type cultivars had three functional genes while low-amylose cultivars had one. We determined complete sequences of the three homoeologous waxy structural genes, EeWx1, EeWx2 and EeWx3, in a wild-type cultivar. These sequences showed high homology in the exon regions (97 %), and lower homology in the introns (82 %). Two spontaneous mutations were characterized in the low-amylose cultivars. In addition, one induced mutation was found in the fully waxy cultivar, Chojuromochi. Spontaneous mutations are deletions of whole and terminal regions in the EeWx2 and EeWx3 alleles, respectively. The induced mutation is a single-base deletion that led to a premature termination codon in EeWx1. These findings led us to develop useful markers for selecting low-amylose and waxy lines in millet.     

Beginnende Domestication des Undulatus-Papageien (Melopsittacus undulatus Gould)

Ohne Zusammenfassung     

Enzyme diversity in pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum)

Summary The survey of enzyme polymorphism in West African pearl millet cultivars reported by Tostain et al. 1987 has been extended to include populations from other regions of Africa and from India. The eight enzyme systems studied included: alcohol dehydrogenase, -esterase, catalase, phosphoglucoisomerase, phosphoglucomutase, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase, and malate dehydrogenase. One-hundred-ninety-nine populations of millet were analyzed, including 74 populations studied earlier. No new enzyme diversity was observed. Intrapopulation diversity ranged from 70%–90% of the total diversity, depending on their regions of origin. Four principal groups were distinguished in the following decreasing order of diversity: early-maturing cultivars from West and East Africa, late — maturing cultivars from West and East Africa, cultivars from India, and cultivars from southern Africa. The early-maturing cultivars were distributed between two principal focal points from East Africa in the East to Mali in the West. In the center were found millets from Niger which were most diverse. Indian and southern African cultivars were distinct, with the former appearing relatively similar to those of Niger, and the latter somewhat similar to late-maturing cultivars from West Africa, a diverse group that included late-maturing cultivars from East Africa. Based on the results obtained, an evolutionary hypothesis proposed here includes: multiple domestications in the Sahel, creation of early-maturing cultivars and their migration eastwards to India plus a southwards migration to Sudanian zone, and creation of late-maturing cultivars and their migration simultaneously westwards, eastwards, and southwards to southern Africa.     

Enzyme diversity in pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum)

Summary Polymorphism in twelve genes coding for eight enzymes in pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.): alcohol dehydrogenases (ADH), catalases (CAT), -esterases (EST), glutamate oxaloacetate transaminases (GOT), malate dehydrogenases (MDH), 6-Phosphogluconate dehydrogenases (PGD), phosphoglucoisomerases (PGI) and phosphoglucomutases (PGM), was observed by electrophoresis on 74 cultivated samples and 8 wild samples from West Africa. Six genes: Est A, Adh A, Pgm A, Cat A, Pgi A, Pgd A contain 95% of the total variation. Principal component analyses and discriminant analyses of the 82 samples described by 46 allelic frequencies showed an almost complete separation into 3 groups: wilds, early maturing cultivars and late maturing cultivars. The early group has the highest enzyme diversity, with cultivated millets from Niger showing the most diversity. The high diversity of the early group and its extensive divergence from West-African wild millets suggest, firstly, the existence, elsewhere in Africa of other enzymatically different sources of wild millet, and secondly, the occurrence, prehistorically, of several different domestications. The late group of cultivars has the lowest variability and a relatively low coefficient of differentiation. This relatively homogeneous enzyme structure does not seem to be associated to ecology. A hypothesis is advanced suggesting that West African late-cultivars were derived from a common cultivated early complex. This complex must have been distributed across the Sudanian zone and must have been later sumitted to modifications by limited gene flow with local early maturing cultivars.     

Overexpression of millet ZIP-like gene (SiPf40) affects lateral bud outgrowth in tobacco and millet

A SiPf40 gene was identified from an immature seed cDNA library of foxtail millet (Setaria italica). This gene encodes for a 29.4 KDa protein containing eight potential transmembrane domains and a highly conserved ZIP signature motif typical of ZIPs (zinc or iron transporter proteins) family. Other SiPf40 potential homologous genes have also been identified in rice, maize, wheat and Arabidopsis by Southern analysis. Expression data showed that this gene is preferentially expressed in millet hypocotyl and bud; however, a minimal level of constitutive expression could be detected in other foxtail millet tissues.Overexpression of SiPf40 gene causes extra branches in tobacco and extra tillering in millet associated with vessel enlarging and xylary fibers increasing, whereas the tiller number decreases in SiPf40 gene silenced plants. Moreover, IAA content decreased significantly in shoot apex of the transgenic tobacco overexpressing SiPf40 gene. All together, these morphological alterations indicate that SiPf40 gene is essential for lateral shoots growth.     

Molecular organization of great millet (Sorghum vulgare) DNA

Approximately 52% of the nuclear genome of great millet(Sorghum vulgare) consists of repetitive DNA which can be grouped into very fast, fast and slow components. The reiteration frequencies of the fast and slow reassociating components are {dy7000} and 92 respectively. Approximately 90% of the genome consists of repeated sequences interspersed amongst themselves and with single copy sequences. The interspersed repeat sequences are of three sizesviz. > 1·5 kilobase pairs, 0·5–1·0 kilobase pairs and 0·15–0·30 kilobase pairs while the size of the single copy sequences is 3·0 kilobase pairs. Hence the genome organization of great millet is essentially of a mixed type NCL communication No. 3527.     

Saccharification of cassava (manihot esculenta) with millet amylase

Millet amylase formed during malting was used for teh saccharification of cassava (Manihot esculenta) into glucose syrup. The resulting syrup was also fermented to ethanol and citric acid. The maximum α-amylase activity occurred within 30 hours of millet germination at an optimum pH 8.0 and 40°C. The T. reesei enzymes enhanced the rate of cassava hydrolysis and paper chromatography revealed the presence of maltose, glucose and galactose in the cassava hydrolysate. The low cost of millet coupled with the fact that it is readily available makes it an economic source of amylase.     

Substitution of finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and bulrush millet (Pennisetum typhoides) for maize in broiler feeds

The first experiment was conducted to determine acceptability levels and growth performance when bulrush millet or finger millet was substituted for maize at 0, 20, 40 or 60% in both broiler starter and finisher feeds. The chicks fed on the bulrush millet diets had the highest overall body weight gain of 1649 g per chick at 55 days. Performance on the finger millet diets was comparable to that on maize. In view of the higher protein content in the bulrush millet tested, subsequent experiments were conducted to determine the value of using bulrush millet not only as an energy source, but also as a part substitute for protein supplements in broiler diets. The bulrush millet included at 70% was shown to effectively replace part of the vegetable protein supplement provided the diet was supplemented with up to 0.3% lysine.     

二氯喹啉酸诱导稗草EcDnaJ基因表达

DnaJ作为分子伴侣在植物抗逆中起重要作用. 但目前在二氯喹啉酸逆境下,其在抗药性稗草中表达特点却鲜有报道. 本研究采用RACE技术从抗二氯喹啉酸稗草中克隆了1个DnaJ基因, 命名为EcDnaJ1 (GenBank登录号：JX518598), 其cDNA全长为2 154 bp, 开放阅读框为1 350 bp,编码449 个氨基酸, 理论分子量为48.4 kD, 等电点为9.5. 该蛋白质氮端含有1个保守的J结构域, 中部含有4个模式为CxxCxGxG的锌指结构. Real-time PCR分别测定EcDnaJ1在二氯喹啉酸抗性和敏感的稗草生物型苗期叶、根及成株期根、茎、叶和种子中的表达, 在感、抗生物型的相对表达量分别是0.8～20.9和7.4～30.2, 其中在抗性稗草苗期叶片中相对表达量最高为30.2, 而在敏感稗草种子中最低为0.8, 抗性稗草是敏感稗草的1.4～9.2 倍. 受二氯喹啉酸诱导后, 其在感、抗稗草的相对表达量分别为35.8～72.5和84.9～261.9, 在抗性稗草苗期叶片中相对表达量最高为261.9, 而在敏感稗草的种子中相对表达量最低为35.8, 抗性稗草是敏感稗草的2.4～3.6 倍. 诱导前后, 无论是在苗期根和叶中还是成株期的根、茎、叶和种子中, EcDnaJ1表达量均是抗性稗草高于敏感稗草. 抗、感稗草生物型的EcDnaJ1在mRNA水平差异表达暗示,它可能参与了稗草对二氯喹啉酸的抗药性.     

Inhibition of collagen glycation and crosslinking in vitro by methanolic extracts of Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum)

The present investigation was carried out to study the effects of methanolic extracts of Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) on glycation and crosslinking of collagen. Tail tendons obtained from rats weighing 200-225 g were incubated with glucose (50 mM) and 3 mg of extracts of the above millets in methanol under physiological conditions of temperature and pH for 10 days. Early glycation was estimated by phenol-sulfuric acid method and the crosslinking was assessed by pepsin digestion, cyanogen bromide peptide map and viscosity measurements. Tendon collagen incubated with glucose (50 mM) showed 65% solubility on pepsin treatment; poor resolution of bands in the cyanogen bromide peptide map, and intrinsic viscosity of 0.84 dl/g. The collagen incubated with Finger millet and Kodo millet extracts inhibited glycation; 89% and 92% solubility in pepsin; good resolution of bands in the cyanogen bromide peptide map and intrinsic viscosity of 0.46 and 0.58 dl/g respectively. The study implicates the potential usefulness of the above millets in protection against glycation and crosslinking of collagen.     

DNA sequence organization in finger millet (Eleusine coracana)

Approximately 39 to 49% of the genome of finger millet consists of repetitive DNA sequences which intersperse with 18% of single copy DNA sequences of 1900 nucleotide pairs. Agarose gel filtration and electrophoresis experiments have yielded the sizes of interspersed repeated sequences as 4000–4200 nucleotide pairs and 150–200 nucleotide pairs. Approximately 20% of the repeated DNA sequences (4000–4200 nucleotide pairs) are involved in long range interspersion pattern, while 60% of the repeated DNA sequences (150–200 nucleotide pairs) are involved in short period interspersion pattern. Based on the data available in literature and the results described here on DNA sequence organization in plants, it is proposed that plants with haploid DNA content of more than 2.5 pg exhibit mostly the short period interspersion pattern, while those with haploid DNA content of less than 2.5 pg show diverse patterns of genome organization. NCL Communication No.: 2708     

Proteases in germinating finger millet (Eleusine coracana) seeds

Proteolytic activity was estimated in germinated finger millet seedlings using the endogenous trypsin/amylase inhibitor as substrate and also with haemoglobin and albumin as substrates. The maximal proteolytic activity was observed on the third day of germination. With the inhibitor as substrate, the proteolytic activity was maximal at pH 2.5. The protease that acted on the inhibitor required sulphydryl groups for maximal activity and was suppressed by diazoacetyl norleucine methyl ester and Pepstatin. The protease that acted on haemoglobin with optimum pH of 5.0, was more stable on storage, did not depend on sulphydryl groups for activity and was unaffected by reagents that react with carboxyl groups.     

Pearl millet downy mildew (Sclerospora graminicola): Zoosporogenesis

Summary Cleavage of the zoosporangial cytoplasm ofSclerospora graminicola, the causal agent of pearl millet downy mildew, is by means of the fusion of cleavage vesicles and vesicles containing the extruded axoneme with the cell membrane. This type of zoosporogenesis linksS. graminicola to other Peronosporalean species, and is very similar to that seen for all uniflagellate species examined to date, while it separates it from species of theSaprolegniales where zoosporogenesis is brought about by the expansion of the central vacuole, or where the plasmalemma alone is used.The origin of the cleavage vesicles appears to be from the dictyosomes and not from the finger-print bodies which are rapidly formed in large numbers after axoneme formation and after the cleavage. vesicles have started to appear in the cytoplasm.     

In vivo effect of whole grain flour of finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) on rat dermal wound healing

Influence of finger millet and kodo millet on rat dermal wound healing was assessed by making a 4 cm2 (2 x 2 cm) excision wound on the shaven back of rats under ether anesthesia. Finger millet or kodo millet flour (300 mg) as aqueous paste was applied topically once daily for 16 days. The granulation tissue formed on day 4, 8 and 12 was used to estimate some biochemical parameters like protein, DNA, collagen and lipid peroxides. There was significant increase in protein and collagen contents and decrease in lipid peroxides. Biophysical parameters like rate of contraction and number of days for epithelialization were also studied. Rate of contraction was 88-90% in kodo millet and finger millet treated rats in comparison to 75% in untreated rats. The number of days for complete closure of wounds was lower for finger millet (13 days) and kodo millet (14 days) treated rats in comparison to untreated (16 days) rats. The results implicate a possible therapeutical role for finger millet and kodo millet in accelerating the process of wound healing.     

Induction of segmental interchanges in pearl millet (Pennisetum typhides)

Summary Dry seeds of two varieties of Pennisetum typhoides (2n=14), Tift 23-B and Bil-3B, were treated with gamma rays, diethyl sulphate (DES) and ethylene imine (EI) at their approximate LD₅₀ dosages and the pollen mother cells of the M₁ (first generation immediately after the seed treatment) plants were analysed at diakinesis for multivalent configurations resulting from segmental interchanges. While quadrivalents and trivalents were commonly found in all the mutagenic treatments, hexavalents were seen in the gamma-ray treatment only. Ring quadrivalents were common in all the treatments and their frequency was higher in gamma-ray treatment than in the treatments with the chemical mutagens of which EI produced more quadrivalents than DES. The variety BIL3B was more responsive to all the mutagens used than Tift-23B in which, excepting in gamma-ray treatment, no multivalents were observed in EI and DES treatments.The quadrivalents induced by different mutagens were of different types involving different chromosomes, indicating some kind of specificity of the mutagens in causing chromosome breaks. Thus, in EI-induced quadrivalents the nucleolar chromosome, the shortest chromosome of the complement, was involved, whereas in the case of DES and gamma rays it was the longest chromosome of the complement that was involved in the quadrivalent. Apparently the breaks must have been produced in different chromosomes preferentially.Self-pollinated seeds of two heterozygotes whose interchanges were induced by EI and gamma rays were given a second cycle treatment with gamma rays, again at the LD₅₀ dosage (35 kR), and interchange stocks involving different chromosomes, up to a maximum of eight chromosomes were realized. Alternate use of EI and gamma rays offered better possibilities of obtaining inter-change heterozygotes involving more, if not all, chromosomes in a ring than two successive treatments with gamma rays alone.