果蝇共生菌降低有害真菌的毒性

【背景】目前对于如何解决有害真菌对黑腹果蝇的致死性病理研究较少,对共生菌抑制有害真菌的研究引起普遍关注。【目的】检测黑腹果蝇共生菌对病原性真菌的拮抗作用,揭示共生菌提高果蝇的适合度。【方法】利用PDA培养基分离黑腹果蝇食物中真菌;利用形态和rDNAITS基因序列比对进行真菌的鉴定;通过测量菌落直径、孢子数量以及菌丝分枝数量以评定真菌的生长;利用存活率评估病原真菌的毒性;建立无菌和悉生模型,通过发育历期验证其共生菌与病原性真菌的竞争作用;利用双向选择食物装置检测共生菌抑制病原真菌的效果。【结果】从果蝇食物中分离出的真菌经鉴定为拟茎点霉(Phomopsis),可显著地降低成年果蝇的存活率和延缓果蝇发育。东方醋酸杆菌在体外可明显抑制拟茎点霉的生长,有效地减轻拟茎点霉对果蝇的致死作用,挽救了拟茎点霉导致的果蝇发育延滞,改善了果蝇产卵对拟茎点霉的趋避作用。【结论】拟茎点霉是果蝇的一株条件性病原真菌,而东方醋酸杆菌可以有效地减轻拟茎点霉对果蝇生长发育和存活率的损害,从而提高果蝇适合度。     

Attractiveness and exploitation of decaying herbage by Drosophila in temperate woodland

Summary The Drosophila fauna of a deciduous flood plain forest rich in undergrowth near the river Isar, close to Munich, Germany, was surveyed in summer 1990. Decaying herbage baits (decay artificially induced) were set out to study the exploitation of that resource by Drosophila. Sixteen plant species belonging to several families dominant in the collecting area were tested. All attracted and produced drosophilid flies. Ten Drosophila species utilized decaying plant material as breeding sites; at least eight of the ten are polyphagous. Decaying stalks and leaves of Angelica sylvestris (Apiaceae) were examined in detail. In the case of the most frequent species of Drosophila attracted to A. sylvestris, the number of adults collected did not correlate with the number of flies emerging from the substrate. This was particularly true of D. limbata and D. phalerata. When oviposition and larval development of D. limbata and D. phalerata on A. sylvestris was tested in the laboratory, the number of offspring per female was the same in both species. The difference between these two species of the quinaria group in the exploitation of A. sylvestris in the field is therefore not due to differential suitability of the substrate.     

Egg Placement by Anopheles gambiae (Diptera:Culicidae) as Influenced by Resting Surface Slope and Enclosure

In these experiments, oviposition by laboratory-reared Anopheles gambiae s.s. was as likely to occur from a vertical perch, as from a horizontal sitting position on a substrate of moist mud or open water. Tall cylinders with moist, dark walls provided an enclosed vertical resting surface from which An. gambiae deposited eggs. Similar numbers of eggs were deposited in these cylinders as on dark and moist horizontally-positioned ovipositional substrates. Likewise, An. gambiae oviposited equally from a vertical perch among emergent surrogate reeds vs. sitting horizontally on mud. Open ovipositional resources with exposed resting surfaces presenting 45°, 90°, and 135° angles relative to the cage floor received fewer eggs than a horizontally positioned, moist and dark ovipositional dish, even though more An. gambiae females settled on these angled resting surfaces post-oviposition. We conclude that vertical resting sites are adequate perches from which oviposition can occur if they provide high humidity and the paramount dark and wet ovipositional cues for An. gambiae oviposition.     

共生菌通过氧气浓度调控果蝇产卵偏嗜性

【目的】研究东方醋杆菌(Acetobacter orientalis)和短小乳杆菌(Lactobacillus brevis)通过氧气浓度调控黑腹果蝇(Drosophila melanogaster)产卵的偏嗜性,并研究其对后代存活率和发育历期的生物学意义。【方法】利用双相选择装置解析果蝇产卵行为。利用分光光度仪和pH计测量细菌的OD值与pH值。通过改变果蝇的视觉、味觉和嗅觉感官以检测介导果蝇产卵行为的感觉系统。用后代的发育历期与存活率评价其生物学意义。【结果】果蝇产卵对东方醋杆菌具有趋避性,产卵指数为–0.76,对短小乳杆菌具有趋向性,产卵指数为0.5,并且二者接种比例决定了果蝇的产卵选择。氧气作为一个调节因子,可改变果蝇对东方醋杆菌和短小乳杆菌的产卵偏嗜性。氧气是东方醋杆菌生长必需的条件,有氧培养的OD值为1.3,而无氧培养的OD值为0.4。氧气是短小乳杆菌生长非必需的条件,有氧和无氧培养的OD值均为2.2。破坏嗅觉可严重地影响果蝇对细菌的产卵偏嗜性。东方醋杆菌和短小乳杆菌均促进了果蝇的生长,分别提高存活率1倍和1.5倍,分别缩短果蝇发育历期1 d和2 d。【结论】东方醋杆菌和短小...     

Ovipositional host choice by an invader accelerates displacement of its indigenous competitor

While competition for resources leading to invasion success is well recognized, avoidance of competition is much less so. Changes in behaviour that lead to avoidance are usually displayed by the weaker competitor. In our case though it was the stronger competitor that changed its behaviour by choosing a host for oviposition that was unacceptable to its competitor and avoiding one that was mutually acceptable; this accelerated the displacement of the competitor. We showed this by enclosing both invader (Middle East Asia Minor 1, B biotype) and indigenous (Australia, AN biotype) members of Bemisia tabaci species complex (sap sucking insects known as whiteflies) into field cages with either two plants that were a mutually acceptable oviposition host or one host that was acceptable to both and the other acceptable to the invader only. When only the mutually acceptable host was available, invader and indigenous females oviposited equally across the two plants. However, when given the choice, adult invaders still distributed themselves evenly across both hosts, but shifted their oviposition away from the mutually acceptable host and instead laid mostly on the host poorly utilized by the indigenous competitor. This indicates that the invader can change ovipositional choice to escape into competition free space.     

Oviposition site selection on oats: the effect of plant architecture,plant and leaf age,tissue toughness,and hardness on cereal leaf beetle,Oulema melanopus

In sequentially planted oat stands, the cereal leaf beetle (CLB), Oulema melanopus (L.) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Lemini), is found in greater numbers, and lays more eggs, on later planted (younger) oats (Avena sativa L.) (Poaceae). Plant characteristics that could explain this ovipositional preference were examined in a series of experiments. Cage and open field whole plant preference tests confirmed the attraction of ovipositing females to younger oats. A cage effect illustrated the role of plant architecture (plant height) in CLB host selection. Two multiple‐choice and one no‐choice excised leaf experiments determined that characteristics of individual leaves associated with leaf insertion level (leaf number from base to apex) and age influence ovipositional site selection. Leaves of higher insertion level have higher nitrogen content, but fewer eggs are laid on those leaves. Two experiments examining the interaction between total leaf nitrogen and leaf insertion level showed that only leaf insertion level affected oviposition choice. Published literature suggests variation in secondary plant compounds cannot explain O. melanopus ovipositional preference among leaves. Grass leaves of higher insertion level have more extensively developed cells associated with tissue toughness and hardness. The data and supporting literature suggest tissue toughness and hardness are deterring oviposition on oat leaves of higher insertion level. However, newly eclosed larvae are able to feed on leaves usually avoided as oviposition sites. The explanation for this result may be a lack of correlation between host suitability and ovipositional preference.     

The attractiveness of different odour sources from the fruit–host complex on Leptopilina boulardi, a larval parasitoid of frugivorous Drosophila spp.

In parasitoid insects, successful offspring development depends on the female’s ability to find a suitable host. Specific recognition is often based on responses to olfactory cues, but their source and nature have rarely been determined. –This paper deals with the recognition of odours involved in host location by Leptopilina boulardi[Barbotin, Carton & Kelner-Pillault] (Hymenoptera: Eucoilidae), a larval parasitoid of Drosophila species that develops in mature fruits. The nature and origin of volatile stimuli recognized among odours of the host–fruit complex, and the effect of learning on this recognition, were investigated. Oriented responses to these odours were observed in a four-armed olfactometer and were analysed with the observer software (Noldus Information Technology). Fruit odours alone (banana and pear) were not spontaneously attractive to naive parasitoids, whereas naturally-infested bananas were highly attractive. The attraction was related to the odour that adult Drosophila left on the substrate but not to Drosophila oviposition activity or larval development. A synergism between some fruit odours (banana and pear) and the odour left by adult Drosophila on damp filter paper was observed. However, when testing a non-fruit substrate (mushroom), no synergism was observed. Thus, female L. boulardi may innately recognize host–food substrate odours associated with odours from the adult stage of their host. In addition, an oviposition experience on an infested banana allows L. boulardi females to memorise the fruit odour itself through associative learning. The adaptive significance of this process is discussed.     

Cytoplasmic incompatibility and multiple symbiont infection in the ash whitefly parasitoid, Encarsia inaron

Terrestrial arthropods are commonly infected with maternally inherited symbionts that cause reproductive incompatibilities between hosts with differing infection status. Such symbionts can have major effects on the efficacy of a biological control program if releases are comprised of mixtures of differentially infected individuals. In this study, the ash whitefly parasitoid, Encarsia inaron (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) from Arizona was surveyed for the presence of heritable bacterial symbionts; experiments were also performed to test for two phenotypes known to be caused by Encarsia symbionts—cytoplasmic incompatibility and changes in oviposition behavior and host use. E. inaron has successfully reduced ash whitefly to non-pest status in all three locations it has been released (California, Arizona, and North Carolina) and is also notable as one of the only Encarsia species that is not autoparasitic, with both male and female wasps developing as primary parasitoids of whiteflies. We show that E. inaron is infected with both Wolbachia and Cardinium. While there was no effect of the symbionts on oviposition behavior or host use, crosses between doubly infected male wasps and uninfected females resulted in a severe reduction in the number of female offspring; male offspring production was unaffected. This study thus serves as a further warning that ascribing a phenotype to a symbiont with confidence depends on eliminating the possibility of a mixed infection, and establishes E. inaron as a useful model for dissecting Wolbachia–Cardinium interactions.     

Oviposition behaviour and larval development of Anastrepha fraterculus from Argentina in citrus

Citrus peel physicochemical attributes are considered the main components conferring partial or even total resistance to fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) infestation. Fruit fly females adapt their ovipositional strategies to overcome such resistance. Here, we explored the effects of citrus species (Rutaceae) on the ovipositional behaviour of the South American fruit fly, Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann), and on its immature development. Particularly, we investigated the effects of (1) citrus species on oviposition behaviour and immature development, (2) citrus species on oviposition preference and on the location of the eggs at different depth in the citrus peel, and (3) harvest season and post‐harvest storage time on oviposition behaviour and immature development in lemon. Citrus species influenced ovipositional behaviour and affected survival of immature stages. Females laid eggs in lemon [Citrus limon (L.) Burm.], orange [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck], and grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macfadyen). In orange and lemon, larvae were found dead close to the oviposition areas, suggesting chemically mediated resistance mechanisms. Under choice conditions, females preferred grapefruit over lemon and bigger clutches were found in the layers where embryonic development is favoured. Unsuitability of lemon as a medium to complete development was neither affected by harvest season nor by storage time of the fruit after harvest. The physical and chemical characteristics of the peel were distinctive to each citrus species and may have affected the specific levels of resistance of these citrus species to infestation by A. fraterculus.     

A STUDY ON THE OVIPOSITION SYNERGISTS FOR IN VITRO REARING TRICHOGRAMMA SPP.*

Abstract Solutions or suspensions of polyvinyl alcohol, gelatin, white latex, agar cassava powder, rice flour and starch were used as synergists to improve the oviposition of Trichogramma dendrolimi, T. confusum and T. evanescens with in vitro rearing method. The ovipositional response of Trichogramma spp. to these synergists was different. All the 7 preparations improved the trichogrammatid oviposition much on the artificial host “eggs”. Specific difference of trichogrammatid ovipositional response to these synergists was observed. So, the most effective and economical synergists can be used for increasing the efficiency of rearing different species of Trichogramma in vitro.     

Effects of osmotic tension and salt stress on germination of three grass species

Effects of osmotic tension, salinity and alkalinity were studied on seed germination of three grasses of Karnal-Kurukshetra region with a view to evaluating their capacity to establish through seeds in saline and alkaline environments. Experiments were conducted under controlled conditions in petri dishes lined with blotting papers that were wetted with non-ionic osmotic solutions of mannitol (–2.5 to –15 bars); salinized solutions of NaCl, Na₂SO₄, MgCl₂ and CaSO₄ (Electrical conductivity, EC, ranging from 4 to 16 dS/m), alkaline solutions of Na₂CO₃ (pH 9 to 10) and also in dishes filled with alkali soil grades of the same pH range. Seed germination of all the three grasses was observed to be delayed and finally suppressed by the stress conditions, magnitude of reduction being related to the kind and level of stress as well as to the species. WhileSorghum halepense showed a strikingly superior stress-resistance,Panicum miliare did not appear to be suited to establishment through seeds.Diplachne fusca, on the other hand, was found to be remarkably adapted to alkalinity.     

Nymphal cannibalism in relation to oviposition behavior of adults in the assassin bug,Agriosphodrus dohrni signoret

Summary Nymphal cannibalism was studied over a five year period in a natural population of the assassin bug,Agriosphodrus dohrni Signoret. Cannibalism among instar I nymphs was potentially an effective agent to cause rapid decline of the newborn population in contrast to the rarity of cannibalism in other instars. The high incidence of cannibalism among newborn was associated with concentrated oviposition on the same site by two or more females. The rate of the duplicate oviposition was high at hollows on tree trunk where early mortality of nymphs in the absence of cannibalism was significantly low in comparison with other types of sites. However, analyses of oviposition showed that more than half of the overlapping ovipositions took place on the same day and that insuch a situation 95% of the lately deposited egg masses escaped cannibalism suggesting existence of avoiding mechanism of cannibalism in adult females under circumtances of ovipositional site limitation.     

Preference–performance linkage in the neotropical spittlebug Deois flavopicta, and its relation to the Phylogenetic Constraints Hypothesis

1. Predictions from the Phylogenetic Constraints Hypothesis were tested for the first time in a tropical system using the pasture pest Deois flavopicta Stal, which oviposits into the ground and not into plant tissues. The prediction that there is no oviposition preference–larval performance linkage was supported. The absence of such a link provides an evolutionary basis for eruptive population dynamics. 2. The effects of host species and host plant quality on the preference of ovipositing females of D. flavopicta and performance of their offspring on the selected host plants were tested at the population level. 3. Female oviposition behaviour was affected by the presence of the host plant. Females of D. flavopicta showed a strong preference to oviposit close to host plants. The number of eggs was higher in pots containing Brachiaria ruziziensis (121.88 ± 13.70) than in pots containing only the wet oviposition substrate (5.2 ± 1.98) or dry oviposition substrate (0.067 ± 0.067). Ovipositing females did not, however, discriminate between plants of Brachiaria decumbens and Axonopus marginatus and did not show a strong oviposition preference in relation to differences in plant quality (protein and fibre content). They did show oviposition preference for plants under the high watering regime. The mean number of eggs collected from pots with non water‐stressed plants was 60% higher than the mean number of eggs collected on pots with water‐stressed plants. 4. Although females did not show ovipositional preference, spittlebug larval performance, measured as percentage survival and duration of nymphal period, was better on plants of high protein and low fibre content. These results indicate that there is not a linkage between female oviposition preference and subsequent nymphal performance in relation to differences in protein and fibre content in the host plants. There was, however, a limited linkage between oviposition preference and nymphal performance in relation to plant water content. Females showed preference for moist sites that have high survival of newly hatched nymphs. 5. Evidence indicates that for D. flavopicta, the influences of natality and female oviposition behaviour in response to plant quality are not the major factors driving population outbreaks, which is in accordance with the Phylogenetic Constraints Hypothesis.     

Oviposition habitat selection in response to risk of predation in temporary pools: mode of detection and consistency across experimental venue

Natural selection should favor females that avoid ovipositing where risk of predation is high for their progeny. Despite the large consequences of such oviposition behavior for individual fitness, population dynamics, and community structure, relatively few studies have tested for this behavior. Moreover, these studies have rarely assessed the mode of detection of predators, compared responses in prey species that vary in vulnerability to predators, or tested for the behavior in natural habitats. In an outdoor artificial pool experiment, we tested the oviposition responses of two dipteran species, Culiseta longiareolata (mosquito) and Chironomus riparius (midge), to the hemipteran predator, Notonecta maculata. Both dipteran species have similar life history characteristics, but Culiseta longiareolata larvae are highly vulnerable to predation by Notonecta, while Chironomus riparius larvae are not. As their vulnerabilities would suggest, Culiseta longiareolata, but not Chironomus riparius, strongly avoided ovipositing in pools containing Notonecta. An experiment in natural rock pools assessing oviposition by Culiseta longiareolata in response to Notonecta maculata yielded an oviposition pattern highly consistent with that of the artificial pool experiment. We also demonstrated that the cue for oviposition avoidance by Culiseta longiareolata was a predator-released chemical: Notonecta water (without Notonecta replenishment) repelled oviposition for 8 days. Oviposition avoidance and mode of detection of the predator have important implications for how to assess the true impact of predators and for the use of commercially produced kairomones for mosquito control.     

A Polydnavirus ANK Protein Acts as Virulence Factor by Disrupting the Function of Prothoracic Gland Steroidogenic Cells

Polydnaviruses are obligate symbionts integrated as proviruses in the genome of some ichneumonoid wasps that parasitize lepidopteran larvae. Polydnavirus free viral particles, which are injected into the host at oviposition, express virulence factors that impair immunity and development. To date, most studies have focused on the molecular mechanisms underpinning immunosuppression, whereas how viral genes disrupt the endocrine balance remains largely uninvestigated. Using Drosophila as a model system, the present report analyzes the function of a member of the ankyrin gene family of the bracovirus associated with Toxoneuron nigriceps, a larval parasitoid of the noctuid moth Heliothis virescens. We found that the TnBVank1 expression in the Drosophila prothoracic gland blocks the larval-pupal molt. This phenotype can be rescued by feeding the larvae with 20-hydroxyecdysone. The localization of the TnBVANK1 is restricted to the cytoplasm where it interacts with Hrs and Alix marked endosomes. Collectively, our data demonstrate that the TnBVANK1 protein acts as a virulence factor that causes the disruption of ecdysone biosynthesis and developmental arrest by impairing the vesicular traffic of ecdysteroid precursors in the prothoracic gland steroidogenic cells.     

Effects of Asobara japonica venom on larval survival of host and nonhost Drosophila species

Abstract Ovipositing Asobara japonica females inject venom (containing paralysis‐inducing factors) immediately after the insertion of their ovipositors into Drosophila larvae, and lay eggs a little later. Interruption of their oviposition behaviour before egg laying causes high larval mortality in host Drosophila species, whereas normal oviposition does not. This suggests that venom of this parasitoid is toxic to larvae of these host species but its toxicity is suppressed by factor(s) provided by parasitoid females at the time of laying egg or by parasitoid embryos developing in the hosts. On the other hand, venom does not show toxicity to larvae of nonhost Drosophia species. Possible functions of venom are discussed.     

Kleptoparasitism as an explanation for paradoxical oviposition decisions of the parasitoid Asobara tabida

It is known that the braconid Asobara tabida, a parasitoid of Drosophila larvae, takes oviposition decisions in accordance with survival probabilities in several host species. Nevertheless, larvae of D. simulans, in which the survival probability is virtually zero, are readily accepted for oviposition by searching females. This even happens when they are offered together with D. melanogaster larvae, in which the parasitoid can develop. Here I show that A. tabida can act as a kleptoparasitoid in D. simulans larvae: it can develop in D. simulans larvae, once these larvae are parasitized by another parasitoid, the eucoilid Leptopilina boulardi. Analysis with an optimal foraging model suggests that the increase in survival probability and the occurrence of L. boulardi in the field are high enough to make this kleptoparasitic behaviour of A. tabida pay.     

Effect of a non‐host plant Phaseolus vulgaris on larval performance and oviposition of the oriental tobacco budworm Helicoverpa assulta (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

The oriental tobacco budworm, Helicoverpa assulta, is a specialist herbivore feeding on a few plants of the Solanaceae family including tobacco. Larval performance and adult oviposition of H. assulta were investigated in a non‐host plant, Phaseolus vulgaris (Fabaceae) in comparison with two solanaceous host plants, Nicotiana tabacum and Datura stramonium. Larvae provided with the P. vulgaris leaf died off at day 15, whereas 50% and 40% of larval populations fed on the leaves of N. tabacum and D. stramonium, respectively, survived at day 15. Larval growth upon feeding showed significant difference between the non‐host plant (P. vulgaris) and the host plants (N. tabacum and D. stramonium), but it was not significantly different between the two host plants. In the no‐choice experiment of oviposition, gravid females laid more eggs in N. tabacum and D. stramonium than in P. vulgaris. When the most likely acceptable host plant, N. tabacum, and the non‐host plant, P. vulgaris, were subjected to the choice experiment of oviposition, H. assulta females preferred to lay eggs in N. tabacum, where eggs were continuously laid during the whole experiment period. However, eggs in P. vulgaris were hardly detected throughout the period. This study showed that the non‐host plant, P. vulgaris, had a negative influence on the larval performance and adult oviposition of H. assulta, implying neonate stage is critical for larval survivorship, and ovipositional preference by the female is highly specialized to host plants. Further investigation is required to identify non‐host factors, which could be applied to the development of alternative pest management strategy against H. assulta.     

Characterization of sponge-associated Verrucomicrobia: microcompartment-based sugar utilization and enhanced toxin–antitoxin modules as features of host-associated Opitutales

Bacteria of the phylum Verrucomicrobia are ubiquitous in marine environments and can be found as free-living organisms or as symbionts of eukaryotic hosts. Little is known about host-associated Verrucomicrobia in the marine environment. Here we reconstructed two genomes of symbiotic Verrucomicrobia from bacterial metagenomes derived from the Atlanto-Mediterranean sponge Petrosia ficiformis and three genomes from strains that we isolated from offshore seawater of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Phylogenomic analysis of these five strains indicated that they are all members of Verrucomicrobia subdivision 4, order Opitutales. We compared these novel sponge-associated and seawater-isolated genomes to closely related Verrucomicrobia. Genomic analysis revealed that Planctomycetes-Verrucomicrobia microcompartment gene clusters are enriched in the genomes of symbiotic Opitutales including sponge symbionts but not in free-living ones. We hypothesize that in sponge symbionts these microcompartments are used for degradation of l -fucose and l -rhamnose, which are components of algal and bacterial cell walls and therefore may be found at high concentrations in the sponge tissue. Furthermore, we observed an enrichment of toxin–antitoxin modules in symbiotic Opitutales. We suggest that, in sponges, verrucomicrobial symbionts utilize these modules as a defence mechanism against antimicrobial activity deriving from the abundant microbial community co-inhabiting the host.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">osa</Emphasis>-<Emphasis Type="Italic">MIR393</Emphasis>: a salinity- and alkaline stress-related microRNA gene

Salinity and alkalinity are the two main environmental factors that limit rice production. Better understanding of the mechanisms responsible for salinity and alkaline stress tolerance would allow researchers to modify rice to increase its resistance to salinity and alkaline stress. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are ~21-nucleotide RNAs that are ubiquitous regulators of gene expression in eukaryotic organisms. Some miRNAs acts as an important endogenous regulator in plant responses to abiotic stressors. miR393 is a conservative miRNA family that occurs in a variety of different plants. The two members of the miR393 family found in rice are named osa-MIR393 and osa-MIR393b. We found that the osa-MIR393 expression level changed under salinity and alkaline stress, whereas that of osa-MIR393b did not. Target genes of osa-MIR393 were predicted, and some of these putative targets are abiotic related genes. Furthermore, we generated transgenic rice and Arabidopsis thaliana that over-expressed osa-MIR393, and the phenotype analysis showed that these transgenic plants were more sensitive to salt and alkali treatment compared to wild-type plants. These results illustrate that over-expression of osa-MIR393 can negatively regulate rice salt-alkali stress tolerance.