甲基苯丙胺成瘾的表观遗传学机制

苯丙胺类兴奋剂是全世界第二大滥用程度的药物,甲基苯丙胺作为苯胺类兴奋剂中的主要药物,是中国滥用的“头号毒品”。而现有的研究对甲基苯丙胺成瘾机制尚不清晰,且临床上对药物成瘾的治疗依然存在无药可医的局面。因此,发现新的成瘾机制和治疗策略尤为迫切。甲基苯丙胺成瘾与额前叶皮质（mPFC）、中脑腹侧被盖区（VTA）和伏隔核（NAc）中的多巴胺（DA）、谷氨酸（Glu）、去甲肾上腺素（NE）和血清素（SNRIS）等神经递质的异常释放有关。研究表明,这些神经递质受到表观遗传机制中组蛋白乙酰化、甲基化、泛素化和非编码RNA等调节,某些基因的表达在甲基苯丙胺的诱导过程中增强或被抑制,导致甲基苯丙胺依赖性产生。本文将针对表观遗传学对甲基苯丙胺成瘾机制的影响进行着重论述,以期推进临床开发甲基苯丙胺戒断药物的研究。     

Epigenetic status of Gdnf in the ventral striatum determines susceptibility and adaptation to daily stressful events

Stressful events during adulthood are potent adverse environmental factors that can predispose individuals to psychiatric disorders, including depression; however, many individuals exposed to stressful events can adapt and function normally. While stress vulnerability may influence depression, the molecular mechanisms underlying the susceptibility and adaptation to chronic stress within the brain are poorly understood. In this study, two genetically distinct mouse strains that exhibit different behavioral responses to chronic stress were used to demonstrate how the differential epigenetic status of the glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (Gdnf) gene in the ventral striatum modulates susceptibility and adaptation to chronic stress. Our results suggest that the histone modifications and DNA methylation of the Gdnf promoter have crucial roles in the control of behavioral responses to chronic stress. Our data provide insights into these mechanisms, suggesting that epigenetic modifications of Gdnf, along with genetic and environmental factors, contribute to behavioral responses to stress.     

Epigenetics and memory: causes,consequences and treatments for post‐traumatic stress disorder and addiction

Understanding the interaction between fear and reward at the circuit and molecular levels has implications for basic scientific approaches to memory and for understanding the etiology of psychiatric disorders. Both stress and exposure to drugs of abuse induce epigenetic changes that result in persistent behavioral changes, some of which may contribute to the formation of a drug addiction or a stress‐related psychiatric disorder. Converging evidence suggests that similar behavioral, neurobiological and molecular mechanisms control the extinction of learned fear and drug‐seeking responses. This may, in part, account for the fact that individuals with post‐traumatic stress disorder have a significantly elevated risk of developing a substance use disorder and have high rates of relapse to drugs of abuse, even after long periods of abstinence. At the behavioral level, a major challenge in treatments is that extinguished behavior is often not persistent, returning with changes in context, the passage of time or exposure to mild stressors. A common goal of treatments is therefore to weaken the ability of stressors to induce relapse. With the discovery of epigenetic mechanisms that create persistent molecular signals, recent work on extinction has focused on how modulating these epigenetic targets can create lasting extinction of fear or drug‐seeking behavior. Here, we review recent evidence pointing to common behavioral, systems and epigenetic mechanisms in the regulation of fear and drug seeking. We suggest that targeting these mechanisms in combination with behavioral therapy may promote treatment and weaken stress‐induced relapse.     

Epigenetic mechanisms in drug addiction

Changes in gene expression in brain reward regions are thought to contribute to the pathogenesis and persistence of drug addiction. Recent studies have begun to focus on the molecular mechanisms by which drugs of abuse and related environmental stimuli, such as drug-associated cues or stress, converge on the genome to alter specific gene programs. Increasing evidence suggests that these stable gene expression changes in neurons are mediated in part by epigenetic mechanisms that alter chromatin structure on specific gene promoters. This review discusses recent findings from behavioral, molecular and bioinformatic approaches being used to understand the complex epigenetic regulation of gene expression by drugs of abuse. This novel mechanistic insight might open new avenues for improved treatments of drug addiction.     

Perturbateurs endocriniens et troubles du comportement

Prenatal environmental events that disturb neurodevelopment are suspected to increase the risk of psychiatric disorders. Estrogenic hormones such as diethylstilbestrol (DES) and environmental monomers like Bisphenol A (BPA) have the potential to disturb the development of the foetus and especially its brain. We reviewed the epidemiological studies investigating a possible association between prenatal DES or BPA exposure and risk of psychiatric disorders and discussed the hypothetical biological mechanisms linking this prenatal exposure with psychiatric disorders. The principal methodological issues that could represent confounding factors and may explain conflicting results are discussed. Interestingly, prenatal exposure to DES and BPA has been linked to epigenetic alterations associated with urogenital lesions observed in the exposed offspring, supporting the hypothesis that this environmental factor can indeed alter epigenetic regulations. Following the same line of thinking, these endocrine disruptors may modify the epigenetic mechanisms involved in neurodevelopment and, in turn, increase the occurrence of psychiatric disorders.     

Epigenetic regulation in psychiatric disorders

Many neurological and most psychiatric disorders are not due to mutations in a single gene; rather, they involve molecular disturbances entailing multiple genes and signals that control their expression. Recent research has demonstrated that complex 'epigenetic' mechanisms, which regulate gene activity without altering the DNA code, have long-lasting effects within mature neurons. This review summarizes recent evidence for the existence of sustained epigenetic mechanisms of gene regulation in neurons that have been implicated in the regulation of complex behaviour, including abnormalities in several psychiatric disorders such as depression, drug addiction and schizophrenia.     

Food reward, hyperphagia, and obesity

Given the unabated obesity problem, there is increasing appreciation of expressions like "my eyes are bigger than my stomach," and recent studies in rodents and humans suggest that dysregulated brain reward pathways may be contributing not only to drug addiction but also to increased intake of palatable foods and ultimately obesity. After describing recent progress in revealing the neural pathways and mechanisms underlying food reward and the attribution of incentive salience by internal state signals, we analyze the potentially circular relationship between palatable food intake, hyperphagia, and obesity. Are there preexisting individual differences in reward functions at an early age, and could they be responsible for development of obesity later in life? Does repeated exposure to palatable foods set off a cascade of sensitization as in drug and alcohol addiction? Are reward functions altered by secondary effects of the obese state, such as increased signaling through inflammatory, oxidative, and mitochondrial stress pathways? Answering these questions will significantly impact prevention and treatment of obesity and its ensuing comorbidities as well as eating disorders and drug and alcohol addiction.     

Synaptic neurotransmission depression in ventral tegmental dopamine neurons and cannabinoid-associated addictive learning

Drug addiction is an association of compulsive drug use with long-term associative learning/memory. Multiple forms of learning/memory are primarily subserved by activity- or experience-dependent synaptic long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD). Recent studies suggest LTP expression in locally activated glutamate synapses onto dopamine neurons (local Glu-DA synapses) of the midbrain ventral tegmental area (VTA) following a single or chronic exposure to many drugs of abuse, whereas a single exposure to cannabinoid did not significantly affect synaptic plasticity at these synapses. It is unknown whether chronic exposure of cannabis (marijuana or cannabinoids), the most commonly used illicit drug worldwide, induce LTP or LTD at these synapses. More importantly, whether such alterations in VTA synaptic plasticity causatively contribute to drug addictive behavior has not previously been addressed. Here we show in rats that chronic cannabinoid exposure activates VTA cannabinoid CB1 receptors to induce transient neurotransmission depression at VTA local Glu-DA synapses through activation of NMDA receptors and subsequent endocytosis of AMPA receptor GluR2 subunits. A GluR2-derived peptide blocks cannabinoid-induced VTA synaptic depression and conditioned place preference, i.e., learning to associate drug exposure with environmental cues. These data not only provide the first evidence, to our knowledge, that NMDA receptor-dependent synaptic depression at VTA dopamine circuitry requires GluR2 endocytosis, but also suggest an essential contribution of such synaptic depression to cannabinoid-associated addictive learning, in addition to pointing to novel pharmacological strategies for the treatment of cannabis addiction.     

Associative and sensorimotor cortico‐basal ganglia circuit roles in effects of abused drugs

The mammalian forebrain is characterized by the presence of several parallel cortico‐basal ganglia circuits that shape the learning and control of actions. Among these are the associative, limbic and sensorimotor circuits. The function of all of these circuits has now been implicated in responses to drugs of abuse, as well as drug seeking and drug taking. While the limbic circuit has been most widely examined, key roles for the other two circuits in control of goal‐directed and habitual instrumental actions related to drugs of abuse have been shown. In this review we describe the three circuits and effects of acute and chronic drug exposure on circuit physiology. Our main emphasis is on drug actions in dorsal striatal components of the associative and sensorimotor circuits. We then review key findings that have implicated these circuits in drug seeking and taking behaviors, as well as drug use disorders. Finally, we consider different models describing how the three cortico‐basal ganglia circuits become involved in drug‐related behaviors. This topic has implications for drug use disorders and addiction, as treatments that target the balance between the different circuits may be useful for reducing excessive substance use.     

A role for repressive histone methylation in cocaine-induced vulnerability to stress

Substance abuse increases an individual's vulnerability to stress-related illnesses, which is presumably mediated by drug-induced neural adaptations that alter subsequent responses to stress. Here, we identify repressive histone methylation in nucleus accumbens (NAc), an important brain reward region, as a key mechanism linking cocaine exposure to increased stress vulnerability. Repeated cocaine administration prior to subchronic social defeat stress potentiated depressive-like behaviors in mice through decreased levels of histone H3 lysine 9 dimethylation in NAc. Cre-mediated reduction of the histone methyltransferase, G9a, in NAc promoted increased susceptibility to social stress, similar to that observed with repeated cocaine. Conversely, G9a overexpression in NAc after repeated cocaine protected mice from the consequences of subsequent stress. This resilience was mediated, in part, through repression of BDNF-TrkB-CREB signaling, which was induced after repeated cocaine or stress. Identifying such common regulatory mechanisms may aid in the development of new therapies for addiction and depression.     

Environmental epigenetics: prospects for studying epigenetic mediation of exposure–response relationships

Changes in epigenetic marks such as DNA methylation and histone acetylation are associated with a broad range of disease traits, including cancer, asthma, metabolic disorders, and various reproductive conditions. It seems plausible that changes in epigenetic state may be induced by environmental exposures such as malnutrition, tobacco smoke, air pollutants, metals, organic chemicals, other sources of oxidative stress, and the microbiome, particularly if the exposure occurs during key periods of development. Thus, epigenetic changes could represent an important pathway by which environmental factors influence disease risks, both within individuals and across generations. We discuss some of the challenges in studying epigenetic mediation of pathogenesis and describe some unique opportunities for exploring these phenomena.     

Repeated exposure to methamphetamine causes long-lasting presynaptic corticostriatal depression that is renormalized with drug readministration

Addiction-associated behaviors such as drug craving and relapse are hypothesized to result from synaptic changes that persist long after withdrawal and are renormalized by drug reinstatement, although such chronic synaptic effects have not been identified. We report that exposure to the dopamine releaser methamphetamine for 10 days elicits a long-lasting (>4 month) depression at corticostriatal terminals that is reversed by methamphetamine readministration. Both methamphetamine-induced chronic presynaptic depression and the drug's selective renormalization in drug-experienced animals are independent of corresponding long-term changes in synaptic dopamine release but are due to alterations in D1 dopamine and cholinergic receptor systems. These mechanisms might provide a synaptic basis that underlies addiction and habit learning and their long-term maintenance.     

Reducing the harm of stress: medications to rescue the prefrontal cortex and overcome bad habits: the science of stress: focus on the brain, breaking bad habits, and chronic disease

Our brain is sensitive to stress. Both acute and chronic stress cause cognitive deficits and induce chronic disorders such as drug addiction. In a June 2011 conference at Yale entitled "The Science of Stress: Focus on the Brain, Breaking Bad Habits, and Chronic Disease," Drs. Amy Arnsten and Sherry Mckee discussed the roles of prefrontal cortex in the treatment of stress impairments and addiction. Medications to strengthen the prefrontal function, such as prazosin and guanfacine, may reduce the harm of stress and help overcome smoking and alcohol abuse.     

单细胞转录组测序在药物成瘾研究中的应用

药物成瘾是复杂的中枢神经系统疾病，相关基础与临床研究均证实药物成瘾的神经机制及神经环路在成瘾行为形成的不同阶段逐渐发生改变。利用全基因组关联研究、全基因组测序、全外显子测序或高通量转录组测序等技术的组学研究对包括药物成瘾在内的精神疾病遗传的脆弱性进行了深入研究。上述单核苷酸多态性检测技术或测序技术主要预测疾病的遗传风险位点。然而，许多中枢神经系统疾病的发生与环境因素密切相关，而且在疾病发展的不同阶段，相关基因的表达存在脑区特异性的细胞异质性信息。因此，传统研究对发病机制的解释存在一定的局限性。单细胞转录组测序技术是针对单个细胞进行转录水平的测定，规避了传统测序对细胞群体平均转录水平检测的缺点，可以定量描述细胞异质性。近年来，单细胞转录测序技术在神经精神科学研究中的应用逐渐受到关注，本文总结了该技术在神经科学研究中的重要应用，并以药物成瘾为例，重点阐述说明其在中枢神经系统疾病中的应用价值。     

食物成瘾及其神经环路调控机制

食物成瘾是指人们对某些特定食物（高度加工、可口、高热量的食物）的依赖性达到难以控制的程度,并表现出一系列成瘾样的行为学变化,具有强迫性、长期性和反复性的特点。食物成瘾可引起肥胖症,而且是大部分人不能维持减肥效果或坚持限制性饮食以保持健康体重的核心因素。深入理解食物成瘾及其神经生物学机制,将为干预食物成瘾以改善肥胖提供准确的靶点。食物成瘾的诊断标准是耶鲁大学食物成瘾量表,而食物成瘾的动物模型为小鼠食物自我管理模型。外侧下丘脑-腹侧被盖区-伏隔核神经环路、腹侧被盖区-前边缘皮质-伏隔核神经环路和外侧隔核-结节核神经环路是调控食物成瘾的关键神经环路机制。