Adaptive Value of Genes Controlling the Level of Biogenic Amines in Drosophila

The effects of mutations that change the level of biogenic amines (octopamine and dopamine) on stress-reactivity and fitness of Drosophila adults are considered. It has been shown that (1) the biogenic amines represent an important but not triggering factor of the development of stress reaction; (2) under normal conditions, reproduction is regulated by genes that control dopamine metabolic pathways (indirectly via regulation of the juvenile hormone level). Under unfavorable conditions, reproduction is regulated by genes that control octopamine metabolism; (3) heat-stress adaptation depends on expression of genes controlling the background level of dopamine.     

Effect of larval density on whole-body biogenic amine levels of Tribolium freemani hinton

1. Various biogenic amines, their precursors and metabolites in gregarious and solitary forms of the flour beetle Tribolium freemani Hinton larvae were measured using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrochemical detection.2. Octopamine was much more abundant than dopamine, serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine and related substances, suggesting that octopamine may play much more important roles in growth and behaviour of T. freemani than other biogenic amines and related substances.3. Octopamine levels were higher in gregarious forms than solitary forms of T. freemani larvae, and the relation between octopamine content, hormone cycles and motility is discussed.     

The effect of juvenile hormone on prothoracic gland function during the larval-pupal development of Manduca sexta: An in situ and in vitro analysis

The application of juvenile hormone I or ZR 512 to neck-ligated, day-5 fifth instar (V₅) larvae reduced the time to pupation in a dose-dependent manner when compared to neck-ligated controls treated with methyl epoxy stearate. Haemolymph ecdysteroid titres determined by radioimmunoassay (RIA) reflected the ability of juvenile hormone I and ZR 512 to stimulate larval-pupal development, i.e. the ecdysteroid titres were similar to those of normally developing larvae although the ecdysteroid peak elicited by ZR 512 lagged that in the normal titre by 1 day, while that elicited by juvenile hormone I lagged the ecdysteroid peak in normal larvae by 2 days. Neck-ligated V₅ larvae that were untreated ultimately pupated and the haemolymph ecdysteroid peak eliciting pupation in these animals was 7 μg/ml haemolymph, almost double that of normal animals and ZR 512- and juvenile hormone I-treated, ligated larvae. The data indicated that juvenile hormone I does stimulate the prothoracic glands but to determine whether this stimulation was direct or indirect, an in vitro approach was taken. Prothoracic glands from V₅, V₆ and V₇ larvae were incubated in vitro under conditions in which they could be stimulated by prothoracicotropic hormone, and were exposed to concentration of free juvenile hormones I, II, III or ZR 512 ranging from 10^?5M to 10^?10M. In no case were the prothoracic glands stimulated in a dose-dependent manner that would be indicative of hormone activation. Similar results were obtained when juvenile hormone bound to binding protein was incubated with the prothoracic glands. Studies with the acids of the three juvenile hormone homologues revealed them to be ineffective in activating prothoracic glands, although juvenile hormone III acid does appear to inhibit the synthesis of ecdysone by day-0 pupal prothoracic glands. The significance of the latter effect is unknown. It is concluded from these data that juvenile hormone can, indeed, activate late larval prothoracic glands in situ, but does so indirectly.     

Mosquito juvenile hormone: Identification and bioassay activity

Juvenile hormone III was identified in whole-body extracts of larval and adult Aedes aegypti. No juvenile hormone I or II was detected. The activity of juvenile hormones I, II and III, as well as two juvenile hormone analogues (methoprene, or ZR-515 and ZR-371) was examined in adults, whereas the activity of only the three naturally occurring hormones was studied in larvae. In the larval assay fourth-instar larvae were exposed to the juvenile hormones and their ability to eclose normally was measured. In the adult assay, abdomens were removed shortly after eclosion and the juvenile hormones or analogues were applied topically. Growth of the oöcytes to the resting stage was measured. In larval and adult bioassays juvenile hormone I was 10 × and 25 × more active, respectively, than juvenile hormone III. The bioassay and titre data taken together suggest that juvenile hormone III is the sole physiologically necessary juvenile hormone in Aedes.     

Adaptive value of genes controlling the level of biogenic amines in Drosophila

The effects of mutations that change the level of biogenic amines (octopamine and dopamine) on stress-reactivity and fitness of Drosophila imagoes are considered. It has been shown that (1) the biogenic amines represent an important but not triggering factor of the development of stress reaction; (2) under normal conditions, reproduction is regulated by genes that control dopamine metabolic pathways (indirectly via regulation of the juvenile hormone level). Under unfavorable conditions, reproduction is regulated by genes that control octopamine metabolism; (3) heat-stress adaptation depends on expression of genes controlling the background level of dopamine.     

Biogenic amines in the two-spotted spider mite

Whole body extracts of the two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) were analyzed using a 16-channel electrochemical array high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-based detection system that allows the simultaneous isolation and identification of a variety of biogenic amines. The spider mite extracts were found to contain the biogenic amines octopamine, dopamine, and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), as well as several precursors and metabolites including tyrosine, tyramine, tryptophan, and N-acetyl octopamine. Differences in the levels of biogenic amines were observed between eggs and the adult stages and between males and females. This is the first direct determination of biogenic amines in the Tetranychidae and the first demonstration of 5-HT in any mite species. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Larval-pupal transformation of the prothoracic glands of Mamestra brassicae

The sensitivity of the prothoracic glands to juvenile hormone and prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH) of penultimate (5th)-instar larvae of Mamestra brassicae was compared with that of the same-instar larvae destined for pupal ecdysis by allatectomy. The activity of the prothoracic glands was assessed using either moulting of isolated abdomens or ecdysone radioimmunoassay. Juvenile hormone application immediately after neck-ligation (which removes brain-corpora cardiaca-corpora allata complex) prevented prothoracic gland function in larvae at all stages. When larvae were allatectomized 12 hr after ecdysis, followed by neck-ligation at different times and given juvenile hormone immediately, the hormone inhibited the prothoracic glands of young larvae, but activated the prothoracic glands from day-5 or older larvae. Juvenile hormone I, juvenile hormone II and methoprene activated the prothoracic glands, but juvenile hormone III was relatively ineffective. Brain implantation instead of juvenile hormone application led to activation of the prothoracic glands at all stages.Allatectomy thus caused changes leading to metamorphosis including a transformation of the prothoracic glands from ‘larval’ to ‘pupal’ type. After this change these prothoracic glands were able to respond not only to PTTH but also to juvenile hormone just as in last-instar larvae.     

Octapamine N-acetyltransferase activity from the cattle tick, Boophilus microplus

The metabolism of octopamine in the tick, Boophilus microplus, was studied by incubating synganglia, excised from adult females, with [³H]octopamine. The major metabolite co-chromatographed with N-acetyloctopamine and was predominantly found outside the nervous tissue in the surrounding saline. The N-acetyltransferase (NAT) activity was measured in enzyme preparations from adult synganglia using [³H]octopamine as the substrate and acetyl CoA as a co-factor. Under the assay conditions employed, the V_max was 7 nmol/h/mg of protein and the apparent K_m for octopamine was 4 μM. The N-acetylation of octopamine was inhibited by divalent cations (Zn²⁺ and Cu²⁺), β-carbolines, imipramine and a number of biogenic amines.

NAT activity towards octopamine was also found in enzyme preparations from larvae of B. microplus and this enzyme had similar K_m and V_max values (4 μM and 10 nmol/h/mg of protein, respectively) to the neural enzyme and was inhibited both by β-carbolines and biogenic amines. These results suggest that N-acetylation is a key reaction in the metabolism of octopamine in the nervous system of the tick and may also play an important role in the metabolism of octopamine and other biogenic amines in larval stages of this acarine.     

Action of two juvenile hormone antagonists on lepidopteran epidermis

The juvenile hormone antagonist ETB (ethyl-4-2(t-butylcarbonyloxy)-butoxybenzoate) caused formation of precocious larval-pupal intermediates after the 4th (penultimate)-larval instar of the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta, when 50 μg were applied to any 3rd stage larvae or to 4th stage larvae within 12 hr after ecdysis. This dose was most effective within 12 hr after ecdysis to the 3rd stage. In the black mutant larval assay for juvenile hormone, ETB had activity, 0.75 μg per larva giving half-maximal score. In vitro ETB acted as a juvenile hormone to prevent the ecdysteroid-induced change in commitment at concentrations above 0.1 μg/ml with an ED₅₀ at 2.8 μg/ml and as a partial juvenile hormone antagonist to 0.1 μg/ml juvenile hormone I at concentrations between 10^?3 and 10^?2 μg/ml. By contrast, EMD (ethyl-E-3-methyl-2-dodecenoate) had little juvenile hormone-like activity in vitro up to its limits of solubility (100 μg/ml) and exhibited sporadic partial juvenile hormone antagonistic activity in vitro at concentrations between 1 and 100 μg/ml. Since these concentrations were 10–1000 times that of juvenile hormone I in the medium, EMD apparently is not an efficient competitor.     

Tyramine and octopamine have opposite effects on the locomotion of Drosophila larvae

Biogenic amines are believed to play important roles in producing behaviors. Although some biogenic amines have been extensively studied in both vertebrates and invertebrates, little is known about the effects of trace amines like tyramine and octopamine. We investigated how trace amines affect behaviors using quantitative morphometric methods on Drosophila Tbetah(nM18) and iav(N) mutants that have altered levels of tyramine and octopamine. Locomotion of wild-type and mutant third instar larvae was analyzed using Dynamic Image Analysis System (DIAS) software. We found that Tbetah(nM18) mutants, with elevated tyramine levels and reduced octopamine levels, had a severe locomotion phenotype. Mutant larvae spent much more time in pausing episodes than wild-type larvae and displayed a reduction in speed and linear translocation. The locomotion phenotype was partially rescued by feeding Tbetah(nM18) larvae octopamine, an effect that could be nullified with simultaneous feeding of tyramine. Feeding Tbetah(nM18) larvae yohimbine, an agent that inhibits the activity of Drosophila tyramine receptors, also improved some locomotion parameters. Feeding both octopamine and yohimbine further improved rescue efficiency. Simultaneously reducing the octopamine and tyramine levels as in iav(N) larvae, in contrast, led to a less severe behavioral phenotype than that of Tbetah(nM18) mutants. Feeding iav(N) larvae either tyramine or octopamine exerted only a minor improvement in locomotion. These results suggest that tyramine and octopamine have opposite effects on Drosophila larval locomotion regulation and that a balance between the two is important in producing normal behavior.     

Caste-specific modulation of juvenile hormone III content and ecdysteroid titer in postembryonic development of the stingless bee,Scaptotrigona postica depilis

Summary Juvenile hormone III content and ecdysteroid titer were analyzed for larval and pupal development of the stingless bee,Scaptotrigona postica depilis. Castespecific differences in juvenile hormone III content were detected at three developmental phases: at the transition from the fourth to the fifth larval stadium, in the spinning phase of the fifth larval stadium, and shortly after the imaginal moult. During the fifth larval stadium, juvenile hormone content closely reflects corpora allata activity. Juvenile hormone synthesis may thus be responsible for the elevated hormone titer in spinning-phase queen larvae, a phase of known sensitivity for induction of queen characters by exogenous juvenile hormone. For ecdysteroids, two phases of caste-specific differences were found: in the pre-pupal phase, and shortly after the imaginal moult. In both periods the titer in queens is distinctly higher compared to workers.Abbreviations Im imago 1 day after eclosion - L3, L4, L5 larval instars 3, 4, and 5 - L5F1, L5F2 substages of feeding phase in fifth larval instar - L5S1, L5S2, L5S3 substages of spinning phase in fifth larval instar - PP1, PP2 substages of prepupal phase - Pw white eyed pupa - Pp pink eyed pupa - Pr red eyed pupa - Pd dark eyed pupa - Pdl, Pdm, Pdd dark eyed pupa with progressive tanning of cuticle - RIA radioimmunoassay     

The effects of octopamine on juvenile hormone biosynthesis,electrophysiology, and cAMP content of the corpora allata of the cockroach Diploptera punctata

Summary Juvenile hormone production by the corpora allata of the adult female cockroach, Diploptera punctata, can be modulated by treatment with the biogenic amine, octopamine. Endogenous octopamine has been identified within the CA, using HPLC and electrochemical detection. Treatment with octopamine results in a sinusoidal, dose-dependent inhibition of JH biosynthesis by CA from day 2 virgin females, with maximal inhibition occurring at 10^-10 M and 10^-4 M. In day 4 and day 8 mated female corpora allata octopamine inhibited JH biosynthesis at 5·10^-5 M. Although the elevation of either cAMP or cGMP within the CA is known to be associated with an inhibition of JH biosynthesis, treatment with high concentrations of octopamine results in an increase in the level of cAMP but not cGMP. This effect is both dose- and time-dependent.Octopamine treatment also initiates changes in the passive membrane responses of the CA. Superfusion of CA with octopamine results in a pronounced hyperpolarization of CA cells and an increase in the electrotonic potential (indicative of the degree of electrical coupling between CA cells). This effect could be blocked by the octopamine receptor blocker phentolamine. Treatment with octopamine or phentolamine also blocked the hyperpolarization of CA cells normally associated with electrical stimulation of the axon tracts innervating the CA.We hypothesize that octopamine may be a natural neuromodulator of JH production by CA, regulating ion channels in CA cells themselves as well as release of the inhibitory neuropeptide, allatostatin, from the terminals within the CA.Abbreviations 4-AP 4-aminopyridine - CA corpora allata - CC corpora cardiaca - cAMP cyclic adenosine monophosphate - cGMP cyclic guanosine monophosphate - EDTA ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid - HEPES N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N2-ethanesulfonic acid - HPLC high pressure liquid chromatography - IBMX 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine - JH juvenile hormone - ms millisecond - nA nanoampere - NCA I nervi corporis allati I - OCT octopamine - TEA tetraethyl ammonium     

Role of ecdysone 20-monooxygenase in regulation of 20-hydroxyecdysone levels by juvenile hormone and biogenic amines in Drosophila

The effects of increased levels of dopamine (feeding flies with dopamine precursor, l-dihydroxyphenylalanine) and octopamine (feeding flies with octopamine) on ecdysone 20-monooxygenase activity in young (2 days old) wild type females (the strain wt) of Drosophila virilis have been studied. l-dihydroxyphenylalanine and octopamine feeding increases ecdysone 20-monooxygenase activity by a factor of 1.6 and 1.7, respectively. Ecdysone 20-monooxygenase activity in the young (1 day old) octopamineless females of the strain Tβh ^nM18 , in females of the strain P845 (precursor of Tβh ^nM18 strain) and in wild type females (Canton S) of Drosophila melanogaster have been measured. The absence of octopamine leads to a considerable decrease in the enzyme activity. We have also studied the effects of juvenile hormone application on ecdysone 20-monooxygenase activity in 2-day-old wt females of D. virilis and demonstrated that an increase in juvenile hormone titre leads to an increase in the enzyme activity. We discuss the supposition that ecdysone 20-monooxygenase occupies a key position in the regulation of 20-hydroxyecdysone titre under the conditions that lead to changes in juvenile hormone titre and biogenic amine levels.     

Juvenile hormone biosynthesis by corpus cardiacum-corpus allatum complexes of larval Lymantria dispar

• 1.1. A radiochemical assay was used to examine juvenile hormone (JH) synthesis and secretion in vitro by incubating two pairs of larval corpus cardiacum-corpus allatum complexes (CC-CA) from, Lymantria dispar, in 50 μl of osmotically balanced Grace's medium containing 1 μC1 [³H-methyl]-methionine for 6 hr.
• 2.2. For CC-CA of fourth instar female larvae, maximal incorporation of ³H-methyl was 0.15 pmol/pr/hr between days 2 and 3. High pressure liquid chromatographic (HPLC) analysis suggested that the biosynthetic products are mainly JH III with a little JH II at times.
• 3.3. For CC-CA of last instar female larvae, incorporation of ³H-methyl was 0.48 pmol/pr/hr at the beginning of the stadium and decreased to negligible levels by day 10. HPLC analysis suggested that CC-CA of last instar larvae produced only JH III. Volume increases in CA during the last instar were associated with declining activities of JH secretion.
• 4.4. Comparisons of maximal rates of ³ H-methyl incorporation by each unit volume of CA revealed that in the last instar each unit volume (μm³) of glandular tissue secreted 50% more JH than in the fourth instar.

     

Brain biogenic amines and reproductive dominance in bumble bees (Bombus terrestris)

To begin to explore the role of biogenic amines in reproductive division of labor in social insects, brain levels of dopamine, serotonin, and octopamine were measured in bumble bee (Bombus terrestris) workers and queens that differ in behavioral and reproductive state. Levels of all three amines were similar for mated and virgin queens. Young workers that developed with or without a queen had similar amine levels, but in queenright colonies differences in biogenic amine levels were associated with differences in behavior and reproductive physiology. Dominant workers had significantly higher octopamine levels compared with workers of lower dominance status but of similar size, age, and ovary state. High dopamine levels were associated with the last stages of oocyte development irrespective of worker social status and behavior. These results suggest that biogenic amines are involved in behavioral and physiological aspects of regulation of reproduction in bumble bees. Accepted: 10 December 1999     

Biogenic amines regulate the reproductive function in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila</Emphasis> as neurohormones

We studied the influence of experimental increase in the octopamine and dopamine content on the level of juvenile hormone degradation, oogenesis, and fertility in wild type Drosophila virilis flies. Feeding of flies on octopamine led to a significantly decreased level of juvenile hormone degradation (increased titer) in young and sexually mature females, rather than in males, markedly decreased the number of vitellogenic (stages 8–10) and mature (stage 14) oocytes), and sharply reduced fertility. Feeding of flies on dopamine decreased the juvenile hormone degradation (increased titer) in young wild type females and increased it (lowered the juvenile hormone titer) in sexually mature females, as well as decreased the fertility of wild type females to a level characteristic for D. virilis line with a mutation doubling the endogenous dopamine level. A possible mechanism of the influence of these amines on the reproductive function in Drosophila as neurohormones is discussed and a conclusion is drawn that the reduced fertility of females at an increased level of amines appears to be related to an increased level of ecdysteroids, which is caused by an increased, as a result of decreased degradation, juvenile hormone titer.     

Juvenile hormone synthesis by ring glands of the blowfly Lucilia cuprina

The major radiolabelled product released from ring gland and brain-ring gland complexes of third instar larval and pre-pupal stages of the sheep blowfly Lucilia cuprina upon incubation with L-[methyl-³H]methionine corresponded to one diastereomer of juvenile hormone III bisepoxide (JHB₃). Endocrine glands incubated with the juvenile hormone precursor 2E,6E-farnesoic acid released increased quantities of JHB₃, together with significant amounts of juvenile hormone III but not the isomeric methyl 2E-6,7-epoxyfarnesoate. Synthesis of JHB₃ was developmentally and neurally regulated. Ring glands and brain-ring gland complexes from third instar larvae released more JHB₃ than comparable preparations from pre-pupae, while isolated corpus allatum segments of the gland were more active than intact brain-gland complexes. These results reinforce the emerging status of JHB₃ as the characteristic juvenile hormone of dipteran insects. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 34:239–253, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Effect of various insecticides on the larval growth and biogenic amine levels of Tribolium castaneum Herbst

Various insecticides reduced larval growth of the red flour beetle (tribolium castaneum Herbst) and various biogenic amines, including octopamine (OA), dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT), epinephrine (E), norepinephrine (NE), their precursors and metabolites in the insects were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrochemical detection. Tyrosine occurred in the highest concentration followed by OA, tryptophan and 3,4-dihydroxymandelic acid (DOMA). Tyramine (a precursor of OA in the biosynthetic pathway), synephrine (N-methyl OA), DA, 5-HT, E, NE and their related substances occurred in extremely low quantities compared with OA. The insects were stressed by various insecticides, which resulted in a dramatic change of biogenic amine levels: the OA levels increased, whereas the levels of other biogenic amines and related substances decreased.     

A pharmacological and endocrinological study of female insemination inPhormia regina (Diptera: Calliphoridae)

Injections of octopamine, dopamine, and the octopaminergic agonists, clonidine and naphazoline, into the thoracic hemocoel enhanced female insemination in sugar-fed (sexually unreceptive)Phormia regina. Topical applications of the juvenile hormone (JH) analogue, methoprene, also enhanced female insemination in sugar-fed (sexually unreceptive)P. regina. Since JH plays a role in receptivity in protein-fed females, it was originally hypothesized that one agonist, clonidine, enhanced female insemination by acting on the corpus allatum (CA) to increase JH biosynthesis. Two or three doses of the antiallatal agent, precocene II, prior to administration of clonidine, did not inhibit clonidine-enhanced female insemination. Removal of the corpus allatum also did not have a significant effect on clonidine-enhanced female insemination. Measurement of juvenile hormone (JH) biosynthesis/release in corpora allata, which were removed at 1, 3, 5, and 7 h postinjection, revealed that clonidine does not affect JH biosynthesis/release. Our study reveals a possible role for the biogenic amines in female insemination in insects. We suggest that the octopaminergic agonist, clonidine, acts downstream from the corpus allatum on the regulatory mechanisms involved in female insemination.