十字花科黑腐病菌中GGDEF结构域蛋白差异的in silico分析

近年来,含有GGDEF结构域(含有甘氨酸(G) (2个),天冬氨酸(D),谷氨酸(E),苯丙氨酸(F)保守氨基酸)的蛋白受到重视,已证实含GGDEF结构域蛋白在细胞信号转导、生长和致病性等方面发挥了重要作用.十字花科黑腐菌8004菌株(Xanthomonas campestris pv.campestris str.8004,Xcc 8004)有32个基因编码含GGDEF结构域蛋白,实验证明其中部分蛋白与Xcc致病性、胞外酶产生、生物膜形成和泳动等生命活动相关.本文利用互联网提供的生物信息学资源,对Xcc 8004不同功能含GGDEF结构域蛋白进行生物信息学分析,着重分析其结构域架构.对蛋白结构域架构整体比较显示,这些蛋白的整体结构域架构具有多样性,共有结构域架构仅有PAS_4-GGDEF-EAL (分布于参与致病的蛋白中);对结构域架构局部比较显示,在参与致病性的含GGDEF结构域蛋白中,PAS_4-GGDEF和GGDEF-EAL为共有结构域架构;在参与内切葡聚糖酶产生的蛋白中,PAS_4-PAS_4、PAS_4-GGDEF和GGDEF-EAL为共有结构域架构.本研究结果将为蛋白质功能预测提供线索.     

TBC蛋白家族成员在人类疾病发生发展中的作用

TBC(Tre-2/Bub2/Cdc16)是真核生物中普遍存在的一种由200个氨基酸残基组成的保守性蛋白质结构域,含有该结构域的蛋白质被称为TBC蛋白。TBC蛋白具有GTPase激活活性,可促进小G蛋白Rab-GTP水解为Rab-GDP,从而参与特异的胞内转运过程。在哺乳动物中,部分TBC蛋白具有十分重要的作用,其功能异常与人类疾病的发生发展密切相关。本文主要介绍了哺乳动物TBC蛋白的结构和功能,以及近年来TBC蛋白在人类疾病发生发展中的作用,以期为深入解析TBC蛋白的致病机制提供参考。     

NIF3类超家族蛋白

NIF3(NGG1p interacting factor 3)类超家族蛋白是一个含有NIF3结构域的超家族,从细菌到哺乳动物存在着较高的保守性。编码该家族蛋白质的mRNA广泛存在于生物的各种组织中。该家族蛋白属于α/β蛋白,该类蛋白质通过自身形成二聚体或与其他蛋白质结合形成复合物发挥生物学功能。现已证明该家族蛋白多与基因的转录有关,在一些哺乳动物中还在神经分化中起关键作用。最近研究表明它还和一些人类疾病有关。虽然该家族蛋白数量众多,广泛存在,但多数为假想蛋白,对其相关功能的研究较少,被归属为"未知功能蛋白质"。也正是因为该家族蛋白数量众多,广泛存在,功能未知,它们已经引起了人们越来越大的研究兴趣。     

认识Munc13

Munc13是C.elegans Unc-13和Drosophila Dunc-13在哺乳动物中的同系物,有四种亚型,是SNARE蛋白的调节蛋白之一。Munc13蛋白含有两个结构域：C1和C2结构域,DAG/佛波醇结合到C1结构域上,能增强Munc13-1促进囊泡成熟的能力。在神经递质的胞吐过程中,有许许多多的蛋白参与,其中Munc,Synaptotagmin和Rab等蛋白家族是其重要的调节因子。同时,囊泡的转运和分泌也需要这些功能特殊的蛋白质的参与。全面了解Munc13的结构域与功能及其在分泌中的地位和分泌模式,有助于其在临床医学中的应用,如其在胰岛素释放等分泌调节中起着的重要作用。     

认识Munc13*

Munc13是C.elegans Unc-13和Drosophila Dunc-13在哺乳动物中的同系物,有四种亚型,是SNARE蛋白的调节蛋白之一。Munc13蛋白含有两个结构域:C1和C2结构域,DAG/佛波醇结合到C1结构域上,能增强Munc13-1促进囊泡成熟的能力。在神经递质的胞吐过程中,有许许多多的蛋白参与,其中Munc,Synaptotagmin和Rab等蛋白家族是其重要的调节因子。同时,囊泡的转运和分泌也需要这些功能特殊的蛋白质的参与。全面了解Munc13的结构域与功能及其在分泌中的地位和分泌模式,有助于其在临床医学中的应用,如其在胰岛素释放等分泌调节中起着的重要作用。     

验证性筛选PDZ结构域结合配体文库快速研究HtrA2/Omi PDZ结构域的结合特性

HtrA2/Omi是一种线粒体丝氨酸蛋白酶, 在哺乳动物细胞中具有双重功能, 即诱导细胞凋亡和参与维持线粒体活性的动态平衡. PDZ结构域是最重要的蛋白质相互作用结构域之一, 参与多种生物学过程, 如细胞信号转导、蛋白质降解、细胞骨架组织等. 最近研究发现, HtrA2/Omi蛋白的PDZ结构域与配体的相互作用, 可以调节HtrA2/Omi蛋白自身的水解酶活性.以HtrA2/Omi PDZ结构域为研究对象, 用酵母双杂交系统验证性筛选PDZ结构域结合配体文库, 快速研究该结构域的结合特性, 并在人类全蛋白质组范围内预测并发现该结构域新的相互作用蛋白, 最后分析这些新的相互作用所能够形成的最小相互作用网络来评估其可信度. 研究结果揭示了HtrA2/Omi PDZ结构域新的结合特性, 即: 不仅能够结合已报道的II类PDZ配体而且还可以结合I类和III类PDZ配体, 并且配体-3位氨基酸具有一定范围内的可变性. 而且, 发现了7个新的HtrA2/Omi PDZ结构域相互作用蛋白, 为进一步阐明HtrA2/Omi蛋白的生物学功能提供了重要线索. 同时证明了验证性筛选目的结构域结合配体文库, 这一结构域结合特性研究新策略的实用性和高效性.     

类蛋白质互作网络hub蛋白与其结构域关联分析

hub蛋白质作为参与较多互作的"中心蛋白".在实现蛋白质功能和生命活动中发挥着关键作用.而结构域作为蛋白质上的基本功能区域,决定着蛋白质功能及蛋白质互作的情况.互作网络中hub蛋白质和结构域对于蛋白质功能的实现均起到决定性的作用.对蛋白质互作与结构域的关系分析表明.蛋白质互作与结构域之间存在着密切的联系.对人类蛋白质互作网络中的hub蛋白与结构域进行关联分析.探讨hub蛋白及其互作partner与结构域数目之间的关系,并通过hub蛋白质之间的互作对相应结构域的关系进行进一步的论证.     

参与植物膜泡运输的蛋白质家族及功能研究进展

真核细胞的内吞和分泌途径中蛋白质和脂类的运输主要由膜泡运输介导。参与膜泡运输的蛋白质家族包括SNARE蛋白家族、RAB蛋白家族、被膜蛋白复合体、Sec1蛋白家族、Arf蛋白家族。这些蛋白质家族在进化中高度保守,并且在植物中已经鉴定了许多哺乳动物和酵母蛋白的同源物。近年来一些研究发现这些蛋白质不仅仅调节植物细胞的膜泡运输,还影响植物的许多生理活动和功能,例如向重性生长、胞质分裂、激素极性运输、气孔运动以及抗病性等。现主要阐述迄今在植物中研究这五类蛋白质家族功能的最新进展。     

巴尔通氏体效应蛋白BepE干扰人源Csk蛋白信号通路的结构与功能分析

巴尔通氏体作为多种人类疾病的病原菌,可分泌多种毒力效应蛋白.其中的7个毒力效应蛋白BepA~BepG由一个Ⅳ型分泌系统VirB注入宿主细胞内,干扰宿主细胞的多种信号传递通路.在这7个效应蛋白中,BepD~F的N端含有特征的EPIYA基序.注入宿主细胞后,这些EPIYA基序上的酪氨酸残基被宿主细胞中的SFK激酶磷酸化,磷酸化后的EPIYA基序可与宿主细胞中含SH2结构域的蛋白结合并干扰宿主细胞的SH2蛋白相关信号通路.在此之前,已经有多种病原菌的效应蛋白被发现含有EPIYA基序,并且通过磷酸化的EPIYA干扰哺乳动物宿主的SH2信号通路.这些毒性效应蛋白除EPIYA基序之外并没有明显的序列同源性.与此相应,在人类蛋白质组中目前只发现了6种含有EPIYA基序的蛋白,这个基序出现的频率显著低于基于随机预测的频率,这可能是在人类进化过程中含有EPIYA基序的蛋白会干扰正常信号通路传导而被淘汰.JAM-A是已报道的6个人体内EPIYA蛋白之一,它存在于人血小板中,可通过招募Csk至血小板来避免血栓的形成.已有的报道证明了BepE可与人源Csk相互作用,通过影响Csk的功能进而干扰一系列信号通路.人源Csk蛋白作为一个可以同时被来自于病原菌毒力蛋白和内源蛋白中磷酸化EPIYA基序识别并结合的分子,为我们研究并对比这两种含EPIYA基序的蛋白质对人类细胞中SH2信号通路的作用提供了一个理想的靶标.本文报道了Csk与BepE及JAM-A2种磷酸化多肽复合物高分辨率晶体结构并分别测定其亲和力.Csk与多肽复合物结构显示,Csk与2种多肽结合方式相似,都是通过SH2结构域与磷酸化酪氨酸结合,多肽链垂直于SH2结构域中的β片层.SPR实验结果显示,来源于巴尔通氏体的BepE比人源JAM-A与Csk亲和力高,这暗示毒力蛋白通过磷酸化的EPIYA基序以高亲和力结合人体内含SH2结构域的蛋白,进而干扰SH2蛋白所涉及的信号通路.     

RRM RNA结合蛋白的结构与功能

RRM RNA结合蛋白是一类含一个或数个RRM结构域及附属结构域的RNA结合蛋白,参与RNA前体的剪接、RNA的细胞定位、RNA的稳定性等多种转录后调控过程.在RRM基序中含有许多保守的氨基酸以保证对RNA的结合活性,但是这一家族的不同蛋白质却能特异地结合各种不同的RNA分子.RRM RNA结合蛋白与某些人类遗传性疾病及肿瘤相关.     

Saccharomyces cerevisiae Kelch Proteins and Bud14 Protein Form a Stable 520-kDa Formin Regulatory Complex That Controls Actin Cable Assembly and Cell Morphogenesis

Formins perform essential roles in actin assembly and organization in vivo, but they also require tight regulation of their activities to produce properly functioning actin structures. Saccharomyces cerevisiae Bud14 is one member of an emerging class of formin regulators that target the FH2 domain to inhibit actin polymerization, but little is known about how these regulators are themselves controlled in vivo. Kelch proteins are critical for cell polarity and morphogenesis in a wide range of organisms, but their mechanistic roles in these processes are still largely undefined. Here, we report that S. cerevisiae Kelch proteins, Kel1 and Kel2, associate with Bud14 in cell extracts to form a stable 520-kDa complex with an apparent stoichiometry of 2:2:1 Bud14/Kel1/Kel2. Using pairwise combinations of GFP- and red fluorescent protein-tagged proteins, we show that Kel1, Kel2, and Bud14 interdependently co-localize at polarity sites. By analyzing single, double, and triple mutants, we show that Kel1 and Kel2 function in the same pathway as Bud14 in regulating Bnr1-mediated actin cable formation. Loss of any component of the complex results in long, bent, and hyper-stable actin cables, accompanied by defects in secretory vesicle traffic during polarized growth and septum formation during cytokinesis. These observations directly link S. cerevisiae Kelch proteins to the control of formin activity, and together with previous observations made for S. pombe homologues tea1p and tea3p, they have broad implications for understanding Kelch function in other systems.     

Actin Cytoskeletal Organization in Drosophila Germline Ring Canals Depends on Kelch Function in a Cullin-RING E3 Ligase

The Drosophila Kelch protein is required to organize the ovarian ring canal cytoskeleton. Kelch binds and cross-links F-actin in vitro, and it also functions with Cullin 3 (Cul3) as a component of a ubiquitin E3 ligase. How these two activities contribute to cytoskeletal remodeling in vivo is not known. We used targeted mutagenesis to investigate the mechanism of Kelch function. We tested a model in which Cul3-dependent degradation of Kelch is required for its function, but we found no evidence to support this hypothesis. However, we found that mutant Kelch deficient in its ability to interact with Cul3 failed to rescue the kelch cytoskeletal defects, suggesting that ubiquitin ligase activity is the principal activity required in vivo. We also determined that the proteasome is required with Kelch to promote the ordered growth of the ring canal cytoskeleton. These results indicate that Kelch organizes the cytoskeleton in vivo by targeting a protein substrate for degradation by the proteasome.     

Genome-wide analysis of the stress associated protein (SAP) gene family containing A20/AN1 zinc-finger(s) in rice and their phylogenetic relationship with Arabidopsis

Proteins with the A20/AN1 zinc-finger domain are present in all eukaryotes and are well characterized in animals, but little is known about their function in plants. Earlier, we have identified an A20/AN1 zinc-finger containing stress associated protein 1 gene (SAP1) in rice and validated its function in abiotic stress tolerance. In this study, genome-wide survey of genes encoding proteins possessing A20/AN1 zinc-finger, named SAP gene family, has been carried out in rice and Arabidopsis. The genomic distribution and gene architecture as well as domain structure and phylogenetic relationship of encoded proteins numbering 18 and 14 in rice and Arabidopsis, respectively, have been studied. Expression analysis of the rice SAP family was done to investigate their response under abiotic stress conditions. All the genes were inducible by one or the other abiotic stresses indicating that the OsSAP gene family is an important component of stress response in rice. Manipulation of their expression and identification of their superior alleles should help confer stress tolerance in target crops.Electronic supplementary material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at and is accessible for authorized users.     

Update on the Kelch-like (KLHL) gene family

The Kelch-like (KLHL) gene family encodes a group of proteins that generally possess a BTB/POZ domain, a BACK domain, and five to six Kelch motifs. BTB domains facilitate protein binding and dimerization. The BACK domain has no known function yet is of functional importance since mutations in this domain are associated with disease. Kelch domains form a tertiary structure of β-propellers that have a role in extracellular functions, morphology, and binding to other proteins. Presently, 42 KLHL genes have been classified by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC), and they are found across multiple human chromosomes. The KLHL family is conserved throughout evolution. Phylogenetic analysis of KLHL family members suggests that it can be subdivided into three subgroups with KLHL11 as the oldest member and KLHL9 as the youngest. Several KLHL proteins bind to the E3 ligase cullin 3 and are known to be involved in ubiquitination. KLHL genes are responsible for several Mendelian diseases and have been associated with cancer. Further investigation of this family of proteins will likely provide valuable insights into basic biology and human disease.     

Protein acyl thioesterases (Review)

Many proteins are S-acylated, affecting their localization and function. Dynamic S-acylation in response to various stimuli has been seen for several proteins in vivo. The regulation of S-acylation is beginning to be elucidated. Proteins can autoacylate or be S-acylated by protein acyl transferases (PATs). Deacylation, on the other hand, is an enzymatic process catalyzed by protein thioesterases (APT1 and PPT1) but only APT1 appears to be involved in the regulation of the reversible S-acylation of cytoplasmic proteins seen in vivo. PPT1, on the other hand, is involved in the lysosomal degradation of S-acylated proteins and PPT1 deficiency causes the disease infant neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis.     

Specific interactions between the K domains of AG and AGLs, members of the MADS domain family of DNA binding proteins

MADS domain (for M CM1, A G, D EFA and S RF) proteins are regulatory proteins found in all major eukaryotic kingdoms. Plant MADS domain regulatory proteins have a region of moderate sequence similarity that has been designated as the K domain, and its predicted coiled-coil structure suggests a role in establishing a protein—protein interaction. In vivo studies with the Arabidopsis AGAMOUS (AG) protein have indicated that the K domain is important for AG function. Using a bait fusion protein containing the K domain and the C-terminal region of AG in a yeast two-hybrid selection, 156 clones that encode potential AG-interacting proteins were identified. These clones each encode one of four highly related MADS domain proteins: AGL2, AGL4, AGL6 and AGL9. Additional analysis showed that the K domain of AG alone was able to bind the K domains of these AGLs. This binding was further confirmed by immunoprecipitation experiments using in vitro synthesized AG and AGL K domains. These results strongly suggest that AG interacts with AGL2, AGL4, AGL6 and AGL9 in vivo. Based on these results and previous observations, it is proposed that the AG function requires interaction with at least one of these AGL proteins, and such interactions contribute to the functional specificity of the AG protein.     

Telomere repeat binding proteins are functional components of Arabidopsis telomeres and interact with telomerase

Although telomere‐binding proteins constitute an essential part of telomeres, in vivo data indicating the existence of a structure similar to mammalian shelterin complex in plants are limited. Partial characterization of a number of candidate proteins has not identified true components of plant shelterin or elucidated their functional mechanisms. Telomere repeat binding (TRB) proteins from Arabidopsis thaliana bind plant telomeric repeats through a Myb domain of the telobox type in vitro, and have been shown to interact with POT1b (Protection of telomeres 1). Here we demonstrate co‐localization of TRB1 protein with telomeres in situ using fluorescence microscopy, as well as in vivo interaction using chromatin immunoprecipitation. Classification of the TRB1 protein as a component of plant telomeres is further confirmed by the observation of shortening of telomeres in knockout mutants of the trb1 gene. Moreover, TRB proteins physically interact with plant telomerase catalytic subunits. These findings integrate TRB proteins into the telomeric interactome of A. thaliana.     

A family of modular type mannuronan C-5-epimerase genes controls alginate structure in Azotobacter vinelandii

The ToxR protein is a transmembrane protein that regulates the expression of several virulence factors of Vibrio cholerae. Previous analysis of fusion proteins between ToxR and alkaline phosphatase (ToxR-PhoA) suggested that ToxR was active as a dimer. In order to determine whether dimerization of the ToxR periplasmic domain was essential for activity, this domain was replaced by monomeric and dimeric protein domains. Surprisingly, PhoA (dimeric), β-lactamase (monomeric, ToxR–Bla), or the leucine zipper of GCN4 (dimeric, ToxR-GCN4-M) could substitute functionally for the ToxR periplasmic domain. ToxR-GCN4 fusion proteins, in which the ToxR trans-membrane domain was eliminated (ToxR-GCN4-C), were inactive, but an additional fusion protein that contained a heterologous membrane-spanning domain retained activity. Strains containing each of these ToxR fusion proteins were analysed for in vivo colonization properties and response to in vitro growth conditions that are known to affect expression of the ToxR regulon. Strains containing ToxR-GCN4-M and ToxR-Bla responded like wild-type strains to in vitro growth conditions. In the infant-mouse colonization model, strains containing ToxR fusion proteins were all deficient in colonization relative to strains containing wild-type ToxR, and strains containing monomeric ToxR-Bla were most severely outcompeted. These results suggest that, under in vitro conditions, ToxR does not require a dimerized periplasmic domain, but that, under in vivo conditions, the correct conformation of the ToxR periplasmic domain may be more important for function.     

Liver cell-targeted delivery of therapeutic molecules

The liver is the largest internal organ in mammals and is involved in metabolism, detoxification, synthesis of proteins and lipids, secretion of cytokines and growth factors and immune/inflammatory responses. Hepatitis, alcoholic or non-alcoholic liver disease, hepatocellular carcinoma, hepatic veno-occlusive disease, and liver fibrosis and cirrhosis are the most common liver diseases. Safe and efficient delivery of therapeutic molecules (drugs, genes or proteins) into the liver is very important to increase the clinical efficacy of these molecules and to reduce their side effects in other organs. Several liver cell-targeted delivery systems have been developed and tested in vivo or ex vivo/in vitro. In this review, we discuss the literature concerning liver cell-targeted delivery systems, with a particular emphasis on the results of in vivo studies.     

Heterogeneous Nuclear Ribonucleoprotein K Interacts with and Is Proteolyzed by Calpain in vivo

Calpain is a cytosolic “modulator protease” that modulates cellular functions in response to Ca²⁺. To identify in vivo substrates of calpain, yeast two-hybrid screening was done using the 5-EF-hand (penta-EF-hand; PEF) domain of the μ-calpain large subunit (domain IV), since several possible in vivo substrates for calpain have been previously reported to bind to the 5-EF-hand domains. Other than the regulatory subunit of calpain, which binds to the domain IV, heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins (hnRNP) K and R were identified, and shown to be proteolyzed by μ-calpain in vitro. When expressed in COS7 cells, hnRNP K and μ-calpain co-localized in the cytosol, and Ca²⁺-ionophore stimulation of the cells resulted in proteolysis of hnRNP K, indicating that hnRNP K is an in vivo substrate for calpain. Now, hnRNP K is considered to function as a scaffold protein for its binding proteins, such as PKCδ and C/EBPβ, which were reported to be calpain substrates, suggesting that hnRNP-K is a scaffold for calpain to proteolyze these proteins.