Variation in airborne urediniospore concentration ofMelampsoridium betulinum

Yearly, seasonal and circadian variations in airborne urediniospore concentration of birch rust,Melampsoridium betulinum (Fries) Kleb., were studied in Turku, Oulu and Kevo during 1983–1988, using the Burkard spore trap. Variation among areas and the effects of weather parameters on spore concentration were also examined. The total number of spores was much higher in Oulu than at the other locations. The yearly variation was high at all locations. The urediniospore season usually started in August and peaked in September. Urediniospores showed clear circadian variation; a peak was observed in the afternoon. High wind speed significantly increased airborne urediniospore concentration; likewise temperature affected the concentration positively.     

Disease spread of non-specialised fungal pathogens from inoculated point sources in intraspecific mixed stands of cereal cultivars

Spread of Septoria nodorum from inoculated point sources was examined in pure stands and mixtures of two spring wheat cultivars Kolibri and Maris Butler. Gradients in disease were observed soon after inoculation; the presence of the more resistant cultivar (Maris Butler) in the mixtures retarded the outward spread of disease compared with the susceptible pure stand (Kolibri). Regression analysis suggested that gradients in incidence were influenced by nearness to the source whereas gradients in severity were not. Spread of disease was also examined in pure stands and mixtures for the host/pathogen combinations, winter wheat (cvs Maris Huntsman and Maris Ranger)/S. nodorum and winter barley (cvs Maris Otter and Hoppel)/Rhynchosporium secalis. In contrast to the spring wheat experiment, no gradients were observed; explanations for the uniform distribution of disease were (a) extensive spread prior to the period of assessment, (b) no physical barrier to dispersal due to the juvenile growth stage of the crop and (c) exhaustion of the point-source.     

The Spread of Epiphytic Populations of Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria on Pepper in the Field

The spread of the epiphytic population of Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria and the disease it causes, bacterial leaf spot, were studied in field plots of pepper near Gainesville, Florida. In the summer of 1989, the epiphytic population of X. campestris pv. vesicatoria was dispersed to the west-northwest from point sources of diseased plants. Winds from the southeast during rainstorms were essential for the spread of bacteria in the field. In the autumn of 1989, a focus of bacterial leaf spot developed naturally near the centre of the experimental plot. The epiphytic population of X, campestris pv. vesicatoria increased sharply after a 2-day rain accompanied with strong wind. The wind was believed to be responsible for the transport of bacteria to distances 32 m from the focus. Initially in both seasons, the epiphytic populations occurred as distinct gradients from the focal sources of diseased plants. These gradients flattened over time and the disease incidence increased to near 100%, The increase in the epiphytic populations of the pathogen to > 3.0 log₁₀ (cfu cm⁻²) on healthy plants away from the foci preceded disease appearance by several weeks. Applications of cupric hydroxide plus mancozeb significantly reduced the epiphytic population of X. campestris pv. vesicatoria on pepper leaves and slowed the spread of disease in the plots.     

The capability of the predacious fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora (Hyphomycetales) to reduce numbers of infective larvae of Ostertagia ostertagi (Trichostrongylidae) in cow pats and herbage during the grazing season in Denmark

Artificially prepared cow pats containing Ostertagia ostertagi eggs were deposited on two pasture plots in May, June and July 1986. Half of the cow pats, placed on one plot, were inoculated with 2000 conidia per gram faeces of the predacious fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora. On the other plot fungus-free control cow pats were placed at the same time. In the faeces generally fewer infective O. ostertagi larvae developed in the inoculated than in the control cow pats. On the herbage around the control cow pats deposited in May, June and July a maximum concentration of infective larvae was found at the same time on the 6th of August 1986. At that time the herbage larval infectivity around inoculated cow pats deposited in May, June and July was subject to a reduction of 48%, 89% and 46%, respectively, compared with fungus-free control cow pats. This experiment indicates that a concentration of 2000 A. oligospora conidia per gram faeces results in a significant lowering of the herbage larval infectivity during the grazing season in Denmark.     

Competition Alters Temporal Dynamics of Sporulation in the Wheat Stem Rust Fungus

To investigate the effects of competition on the timing of pathogen reproduction, urediniospores of two strains of Puccinia graminis f.sp. tritici (SR22 and SR41) were inoculated onto leaves of wheat seedlings singly and in 1 : 1 mixture at three inoculum densities. On randomly sampled leaves, uredinia were counted 9 days after inoculation and urediniospores were collected and quantified every other day from the seventh to the 29th day after inoculation. Increases in inoculum density resulted in progressively smaller increases in uredinial numbers. However, total urediniospore production per leaf was not significantly affected by inoculum, and hence uredinial, density over a range of approximately 10-300 uredinia on the leaf. Total urediniospore production per uredinium generally decreased with increasing inoculum or uredinial density. At high densities, sporulation per uredinium peaked earlier in the sporulation period, had a less distinct peak, and dropped off earlier than for the lower densities. Logistic model fits to cumulative sporulation curves over time revealed that strain SR41 had a greater epidemic rate parameter (r) than SR22 at low and intermediate inoculum or uredinial densities, while SR22 had a higher r-value than SR41 at high density. Both strains also exhibited greater r-values in the presence of the other strain than when alone. Results suggest that strains may have different ecological strategies in their timing of reproduction, and that both intra- and interstrain competition can have complex effects on the temporal dynamics of sporulation in pathogen strains.     

Foliar blight in Centrosema pubescens (Benth.) in southwestern Nigeria

The etiology and epidemiology of leaf blight of centro (Centrosema pubescens Benth.) was investigated at Ibadan, southwestern Nigeria, in the lowland humid tropics. Rhizoctonia solani was associated with the leaf blight of centro. The pathogen was harboured by Rottboellia cochinchiensis, a weed growing within and outside the centro plot. A high inoculum population of 4.0 ± 0.3 × 106 colony forming units/g soil was estimated in the soil. The seed of centro were free of R. solani. Field infection of the disease occurs during the peak of the rainy season beginning in patches which later spread, causing extensive defoliation of the sward. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

油松与赤松疱锈病病原及转主的研究

油松与赤松疱锈病是两针松类枝干上的重要病害,从油松和赤松主干病皮上取锈孢子分别向山芍药、芍药、返顾马先蒿、轮花马先蒿、长白茶藨子、东北茶藨子、香茶藨子和刺李进行室内和室外人工接种试验,终于在山芍药、芍药上接种成功,产生与自然状态下相同的典型症状。同样方法用夏孢子接种也都成功,在两种芍药上所产生的夏孢子堆与冬孢子柱以及夏孢子与冬孢子的形态也基本相同。由此可以肯定,油松疱锈病与赤松疱锈病是同一病原,病原菌为松芍柱锈菌[cronartium flaccidum(Alb·et Schw·)Wint]。取锈孢子用同样方法经多次在返顾马先蒿、轮花马先蒿、长白茶藨子、东北茶藨子、香茶藨子和刺李上接种,均未成功,因此认为这些植物与此两种疱锈病的发生无关,两种疱锈病在辽宁的转主寄主是山芍药(Paeonia obovata Haxim.)和芍药(P.lactiflora Pall.)。     

Susceptibility of zinc-deficient wheat plants to colonization byFusarium graminearum Schw. Group 1

Wheat plants were grown at three levels of zinc nutrition in potted soil under controlled conditions. The surface soil in half of the pots was inoculated with a thin layer of milled chaff colonized byFusarium graminearum Group 1. Forty days after sowing, the plants were assessed for dry matter production and the extent of colonization by the pathogen. The concentration of zinc in the plant tissues was also determined.The zinc status of the plants ranged from severe deficiency through subclinical deficiency to sufficiency. The extent of colonization above the point of infection was decreased significantly by increasing the level of zinc supply. However, colonization of the seminal or secondary roots was not affected by zinc supply, nor was the incidence of infected plants. The unidirectional effect on resistance suggests that zinc has modified the contribution of the xylem flux to the upward spread of the pathogen.     

Measuring and modelling the effects of inoculation date and aphid flights on the secondary spread of Beet mosaic virus in sugar beet

The effect of the inoculation date on the spread of Beet mosaic virus (BtMV) in sugar beet field plots was studied. Two plants in the centre of each plot were inoculated with BtMV using Myzus persicae. The spread of the infection around these sources was monitored by inspecting the plants on two diagonal transects through the centre of the plot. Early inoculations resulted in a greater spread than late inoculations, but any inoculation before the onset of the aphid migration resulted in a similar‐sized spread. The spread was concentrated in patches around the inoculated plants, and its rate was explained by vector pressure, as shown by regression analysis and a mechanistic simulation model. This vector pressure was quantified using data obtained by catching aphids in a green water trap in the crop, catching aphids in a 12 m high suction trap at a distant location, and infection of bait plants from adjacent virus source plants. The daily total aphid catches obtained by a suction trap provided the best statistical explanation for the spread of this virus. The parameter r, describing the relationship between vector pressure and the rate of disease progress, was remarkably robust. This parameter varied less than 10% between treatments (infection date) within a single experiment, and less than a factor two between four experiments performed at different sites in two years. The robustness of this parameter suggests that the spread of a potyvirus may be predicted on the basis of the initial infection date and vector abundance.     

Dynamics, spread, and persistence of a single genotype of Pseudomonas syringae relative to those of its conspecifics on populations of snap bean leaflets.

A rifampin-resistant strain of Pseudomonas syringae (R10) was introduced onto bean plants grown in field plots to examine the processes of growth, spread, and survival of a single genotype relative to the dynamics of its conspecifics on populations of individual leaflets. R10 was applied to four plots (400, 200, 100, and 50 m2), each of which was centered in a quadrant of a bean field (90 by 90 m). Population sizes of the species P. syringae and of R10 were determined on each of 25 individual leaflets collected from the largest plot (A) at approximately weekly intervals during a 10-week period following application. The spread of R10 from all plots was monitored by leaf imprinting of individual leaflets collected at sites along four transects, each of which bisected two of the plots. The introduced strain was a dominant component of the species for about 5 weeks postinoculation on leaflets from plot A. Although the population sizes of R10 remained at about 5.0 to 5.5 log10 CFU per leaflet, the strain became a progressively minor component of the species as the population sizes of its conspecifics continued to increase during the latter part of the growing season. In general, a positive correlation was found for the population sizes of R10 and its conspecifics on individual leaflets collected throughout the growing season. This result suggests that large numbers of R10 early in the growing season did not exclude the colonization of bean leaflets by its conspecifics. It is apparent that the species pool comprised genotypes that were more fit than R10 under the conditions that prevailed during the latter part of the growing season. By 6 weeks postinoculation, R10 was detected at all sites sampled within the unsprayed areas of the field. However, it was present as a minor component of the species. The persistence of R10 throughout the winter and into the following growing season was monitored in plot A, which was plowed and replanted with wheat in the fall. R10 was detected on some of the samples (wheat seedlings or soil) taken at approximately monthly intervals from November to June of the following year. In June, the field was plowed and replanted with beans. We could not detect R10 on emerging bean seedlings in plot A. The results demonstrate that the successful spread and persistence of an introduced bacterium do not necessarily lead to the establishment of large populations of the bacterium in adjacent untreated areas or on its host plant in subsequent growing seasons.     

Studies on oil palm trunks as sources of infection in the field

Diseases of oil palm caused by Ganoderma boninense are of major economic importance in much of South-East Asia. This paper describes results from an ongoing field trial concerning the spread of the pathogen from artificially inoculated trunks used to simulate spread from windrowed trunks. Three planting distances for bait seedlings revealed that the closer the seedling was planted to the source of inoculum the sooner it succumbed to the disease. However, infection only occurred when the trunks were mounded (covered with soil), and seedlings planted around uncovered trunks (at any distance) have showed no symptoms of disease to date. Isolates are being collected from infected plants and molecular analysis is being undertaken to give more information on the spread of the pathogen.     

Characterisation of populations of Sclerospora graminicola

Nine cultivars of pearl millet were inoculated with 12 collections of Sclerospora graminicola from various locations in Africa and India in a series of experiments which constituted an almost balanced incomplete block design spanning an entire growing season. The character of each pathogen population was defined in terms of incidence of disease on the hosts. Generally the pathogen collections from the sub-Sahel regions of West Africa were more pathogenic than those from Senegal, Zambia or India. All but one host cultivar possessed relative resistance which decreased as the overall pathogenicity of the collections increased. There was one notable exception which exhibited stable resistance to all the pathogen collections tested and may have potential for future resistance breeding programmes.     

小麦条锈菌PsCdc2基因的克隆及在条锈菌侵染小麦后的转录表达分析

【目的】克隆小麦条锈菌细胞分裂基因PsCdc2,分析该基因在条锈菌接种小麦后不同时间点的表达特征。【方法】利用PCR和RT-PCR技术克隆PsCdc2的cDNA序列和基因组序列,采用生物信息学技术预测分析该基因编码蛋白的保守结构域及基本特性,对该蛋白进行系统发育分析,构建进化树;运用实时荧光定量RT-PCR技术,以PsCdc2在夏孢子时期的表达情况为对照,分析该基因在亲和及非亲和互作中不同时间点的表达特征。【结果】PsCdc2基因组序列长2279 bp,由11个外显子和10个内含子构成,开放阅读框为885 bp,编码294个氨基酸,分子量为33.14 kDa,等电点为6.26。编码蛋白含两个保守的激酶特征位点,一个跨膜螺旋区域。PsCdc2基因编码蛋白与小麦秆锈菌、新型隐球菌、玉米瘤黑粉菌等多种真菌的Cdc2高度相似,其中与小麦秆锈菌的Cdc2亲缘关系最近,序列相似性达73.1%。实时荧光定量RT-PCR结果表明,在亲和组合中,该基因在条锈菌接种小麦的前期上调表达,其中接种后12 h时表达量最高,约为夏孢子中表达量的1.62倍,接种后24-268 h,基因表达基本呈下调趋势,其中96 h基因表达量最低,仅为夏孢子时期的0.07倍。在非亲和组合中,该基因表达基本呈下调趋势,在接种后各个时间点的表达量均低于在夏孢子中的表达量,其中接种后12 h时表达量最高,但仅为夏孢子中表达量的0.34倍;接种后96 h表达量最低,为夏孢子中表达量的0.02倍。【结论】PsCdc2可能通过调控条锈菌的细胞周期循环参与了侵染前期初生菌丝生长和吸器母细胞的形成,与条锈菌的致病性相关。本文首次报道了小麦条锈菌的Cdc2基因,为进一步揭示条锈菌细胞周期调控的本质及研究开发靶向Cdc2的新型农药,以及实现对小麦条锈病的新型药剂防治提供了理论基础。     

In situ acetylene-ethylene assay of biological nitrogen fixation in lowland rice soils

Summary An in situ device for assaying biological nitrogen fixation in flooded rice soils, using the acetylene reduction method, was developed. Diurnal variations in acetylene reduction by an inoculated field plot and by laboratory-grown cultures of nitrogen-fixing algae showed a prominent single-peak pattern of nitrogenase activity. The peak occurred at mid-day for laboratory-grown algae and at late afternoon for the algae grown in the field plot. Some nitrogenase activity was noted during the night. Acetylene reduction studies in rice fields of Albay province, Philippines, showed an estimated fixation of 18.5 to 33.3 kg N/ha each cropping season for the fields of Puro soil and 2.3 to 5.7 kg N/ha each cropping season for the fields of Santo Domingo soil. re]19751202     

Susceptibility of yellow starthistle to Puccinia jaceae var. solstitialis and greenhouse production of inoculum for classical biological control programs

In anticipation of large-scale distribution of a Turkish isolate of Puccinia jaceae var. solstitialis in California for biological control of yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis, YST), susceptibility of YST within the state was determined and a protocol for bulk inoculum production was developed. Inoculation was made of 62 field accessions of YST representative of the range of habitats in California. These were determined to be equally susceptible to infection by the isolate approved for release in the United States in 2003. To support a program to speed establishment by release at many locations statewide, protocols for artificial increase of inoculum were developed. Over 64 g of urediniospores were produced with a mass-production system under greenhouse conditions from 2003 to 2006. Yield of inoculum varied by season, with peak production occurring from early spring through early summer. A large-scale urediniospore harvest also was made from a field plot at Davis, California. Our results show that susceptibility of YST in California is not likely to limit establishment of P. jaceae for biological control, and that production of this or other obligate pathogenic fungi (biological control agent) is possible for support of statewide release and research programs.     

Survival of Strains of Soft Rot Coliform Bacteria on Microthreads Exposed in the Laboratory and in the Open Air

Survival of 5 strains of the plant pathogen, Erwinia carotovora var. atroseptica and 3 strains of the plant pathogen E. carotovora var. carotovora , grown in a liquid tryptone medium and held as 'captive'aerosols on gossamer microthreads, was determined under different atmospheric conditions in a controlled environment room and in the open air. Although these bacteria lost viability more quickly than a robust reference strain of Escherichia coli , sufficient numbers survived for 15 min or more to indicate that airborne spread of viable propagules could take place, especially under cool humid atmospheric conditions. Cells of one strain of each organism extracted from rotted potato tuber tissue were shown to behave rather like those cultured in the tryptone medium.     

Spread of Heterobasidion annosum s.s. and Heterobasidion parviporum in Picea abies 15 years after stump inoculation

The tree pathogenic fungi Heterobasidion annosum s.s. and Heterobasidion parviporum cause root and butt rot in Norway spruce (Picea abies) and produce serious economic losses to the forest sector in Europe. We experimentally studied inter- and intraspecific differences between H. parviporum and H. annosum s.s. in the way they infect stumps and spread into neighbouring trees. Eleven H. parviporum and nine H. annosum s.s. isolates were artificially inoculated on stumps of two spruce stands after first thinning. After 15 years, the same isolates were reisolated from neighbouring trees. Heterobasidion parviporum spread more frequently from the inoculated stumps to the neighbouring trees than H. annosum s.s. The surroundings of H. annosum s.s. stumps that did not spread were often colonized by H. parviporum. Heterobasidion annosum s.s. spread was restricted mainly to the areas of the plot where no other Heterobasidion genotypes had been inoculated. In such cases, H. annosum s.s. tended to develop into bigger genets than H. parviporum. The probability of stump-to-tree spread of H. parviporum depended on the diameter of the stumps, suggesting that H. parviporum spread may relate to the presence of heartwood. Both H. parviporum and H. annosum s.s. proved to be strong pathogens on Norway spruce; however, when competing for the same trees, H. parviporum seemed capable of excluding H. annosum s.s. from the stand.     

Progress of infection by Erysiphe graminis on fungicide-treated and untreated barley

Tridemorph-treated and untreated barley plants wre grown either in separate growth rooms or together. They were inoculated either with a sensitive or a tolerant isolate, and the progress of mildew was recorded. Comparisons were made between the rates of progress of sensitive and tolerant isolates on separated and unseparated fungicide treatments. Results suggested that interactions took place between pathogen populations on adjacent treated and untreated plants. Barley cv. Golden Promise was sown in plots made up of two adjacent fungicide treatments. Triadimefon, triforine, tridemorph and ethirimol were paired with each other and with untreated crops in all combinations. The progress of mildew on each plot was recorded, and differences were found between similar fungicide treatments from different plot pairs. The likelihood of interactions between mildew populations exposed in the field to different fungicide treatments is discussed.     

Role of polymorphonuclear neutrophils on infectious complications stemming from Enterococcus faecalis oral infection in thermally injured mice

Thermally injured mice are susceptible to Enterococcus faecalis translocation. In this study, the role of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) on the development of sepsis stemming from E. faecalis translocation was studied in SCID-beige (SCIDbg) mice depleted of PMN (SCIDbgN mice) or macrophages (Mphi) and PMN (SCIDbgMN mice). Sepsis was not developed in SCIDbgN mice orally infected with E. faecalis, while the orally infected pathogen spread systemically in the same mice inoculated with PMN from thermally injured mice (TI-PMN). SCIDbgMN mice were shown to be greatly susceptible to sepsis caused by E. faecalis translocation, while orally infected E. faecalis did not spread into sepsis in the same mice that were previously inoculated with Mphi from unburned SCIDbg mice (resident Mphi). In contrast, orally infected E. faecalis spread systemically in SCIDbgMN mice inoculated with resident Mphi and TI-PMN, while all SCIDbgMN mice inoculated in combination with resident Mphi and PMN from unburned SCIDbg mice survived after the infection. After cultivation with TI-PMN in a dual-chamber transwell, resident Mphi converted to alternatively activated Mphi, which are inhibitory on the generation of classically activated Mphi (typical effector cells in host antibacterial innate immunities). TI-PMN were characterized as immunosuppressive PMN (PMN-II) with abilities to produce cc-chemokine ligand-2 and IL-10. These results indicate that PMN-II appearing in response to burn injury impair host antibacterial resistance against sepsis stemming from E. faecalis translocation through the conversion of resident Mphi to alternatively activated Mphi.     

Seasonal variation in oxygen isotope composition of waters for a montane larch forest in Mongolia

Measurements of water oxygen isotopic composition were conducted in the 2003 growing season for a montane larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.) forest in northern Mongolia, a transitional area from the south Siberian taiga to the Asian steppe. Oxygen isotopic composition of foliar water and its daily variability were found to be sensitive to atmospheric evaporative demand. During most of the growing season, water sources used by larch trees were from the upper 30-cm surface layer of the soil when precipitation input was large, and were from the deeper layer when the water supply at the upper soil layer was limited. The Keeling plot method suggested that the forest returned soil water to the atmosphere predominantly by means of canopy transpiration during the peak growth period (in August).