Foraging populations and distances of the desert subterranean termite, Heterotermes aureus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), associated with structures in southern Arizona

Mark-release-recapture studies were conducted on foraging populations of Heterotermes aureus (Snyder) (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) associated with three structures in Tucson, AZ. Foraging population estimates ranged from 64,913 to 307,284 termites by using the Lincoln Index and from 75,501 to 313,251 termites using the weighted mean model. The maximum distance between monitors ranged from 26 to 65 m, with minimum total foraging distance ranging between 297 and 2,427 m. Characterizations of the cuticular hydrocarbons of foraging groups were qualitatively identical. Quantitative similarities within sites and differences among sites suggested that each site was occupied by a single colony during the sampling period. The colony at each site had a proportion of soldiers (0.135, 0.069, and 0.040) that was significantly different from the colonies at each of the other sites. From this study, we question the assumption of equal mixing of marked H. aureus foragers throughout the occupied collars around structures.     

黑胸散白蚁取食群体大小与活动范围研究

为明确黑胸散白蚁Reticulitermes chinensis在绿地取食群体大小与活动范围,选取白蚁活动频繁、数量较多的5个诱集点进行研究。试验采用三重标记重捕法,染色标记物为0.2%耐尔兰滤纸(wt/wt)。经统计和测量发现,诱集点A、B、C和D处的取食个体数量分别为78.8、11.3、21.4和8.3万头,距诱集箱的最大取食直线距离分别为11.8 m(A)、5.5 m(B)和2.3 m(D)。由于C点的3次重捕均在诱集箱处完成,因此未能获得该白蚁群体的活动范围数据。而在诱集点E处,2次释放(诱集箱和7号饵站)均未能在释放点和周围饵站内重捕到标记白蚁。黑胸散白蚁4个群体的取食群体数量为8-79万头,连续监测30 d,其距诱集箱的取食直线距离为0-12 m,而实际群体数量和活动范围均大于试验中所得的数据。     

Elimination and reinvasion studies with Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in Louisiana

Three Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), colonies located inside the 12.75-ha Louis Armstrong Park, New Orleans, were selected for elimination by using the chitin synthesis inhibitor hexaflumuron. Once eliminated, each vacated foraging territory was monitored for reinvasion by neighboring C. formosanus colonies, Reticulitermnes flavipes (Kollar) (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) colonies, or both. Each selected colony was eliminated in approximately 3 mo by using baits containing hexaflumuron. Overall activity of each untreated colony in the park remained unchanged during the same period. New C. formosanus and R. flavipes activity was detected in two of the three vacated territories, and in both areas, within days of selected colony elimination. The third vacated territory was completely reoccupied by a new C. formosanus colony approximately 7 mo later. Mark-recapture studies and DNA fingerprinting confirmed the distinctness of the reinvaders from eliminated and neighboring colonies.     

Heat curing Metaseiulus occidentalis (Nesbitt) (Acari,Phytoseiidae) of a fitness-reducing microsporidium

Laboratory colonies of the predatory mite Metaseiulus occidentalis in Gainesville, FL were found to be infected with an undescribed microsporidium. Experiments were performed to quantify the effect of infection on the fitness of M. occidentalis and to determine if heat treatment can cure mites of the microsporidium. The colonies tested were derived from an isofemale line so that differences in performance could be attributed to the presence of microsporidia. A subcolony of an uninfected isofemale line was infected with the microsporidium by feeding females infected eggs from another colony of M. occidentalis. Infected mites had a shorter mean (+/-SD) female life span (7.4 +/- 2.9 vs. 10.0 +/- 2.8 days), lower mean oviposition (1.6 +/- 0.7 vs. 2.2 +/- 0.4 eggs/day), and a male-biased sex ratio (43 +/- 16% vs. 57 +/- 15% female progeny). The infection was reduced temporarily in colonies initiated from mites that were reared in a growth chamber at 33 degrees C from egg to adult, but healthy colonies only were established from the progeny of the heat-treated adults. These colonies remained free of infection for 10 weeks.     

Field evaluation of a fipronil bait against subterranean termite Odontotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Termitidae)

The subterranean termite Odontotermes formosanus Shiraki is an important pest of agronomic crops, plantations, and forestry, and it endangers earthen dikes and dams in China. A fipronil bait consisting of straw pulp and white sugar was evaluated against field colonies of O. formosanus. Triple mark-capture with Nile blue dye was used to delineate foraging territories and to estimate foraging populations of four O. formosanus colonies locating in the campus of Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China. Termite activity was monitored by number of termite workers and straw board consumption in underground monitoring stations. Consumption of bait matrix and fipronil was estimated for each testing site. The results showed that approximately 3-5 mg of fipronil could suppress foraging populations of O. formosanus containing 0.4-0.7 million foragers per colony. Baits containing fipronil seem to be a feasible alternative for controlling O. formosanus.     

Honeybee foraging in differentially structured landscapes

Honeybees communicate the distance and location of resource patches by bee dances, but this spatial information has rarely been used to study their foraging ecology. We analysed, for the first time to the best of the authors' knowledge, foraging distances and dance activities of honeybees in relation to landscape structure, season and colony using a replicated experimental approach on a landscape scale. We compared three structurally simple landscapes characterized by a high proportion of arable land and large patches, with three complex landscapes with a high proportion of semi-natural perennial habitats and low mean patch size. Four observation hives were placed in the centre of the landscapes and switched at regular intervals between the six landscapes from the beginning of May to the end of July. A total of 1137 bee dances were observed and decoded. Overall mean foraging distance was 1526.1 +/- 37.2 m, the median 1181.5 m and range 62.1-10037.1 m. Mean foraging distances of all bees and foraging distances of nectar-collecting bees did not significantly differ between simple and complex landscapes, but varied between month and colonies. Foraging distances of pollen-collecting bees were significantly larger in simple (1743 +/- 95.6 m) than in complex landscapes (1543.4 +/- 71 m) and highest in June when resources were scarce. Dancing activity, i.e. the number of observed bee dances per unit time, was significantly higher in complex than in simple landscapes, presumably because of larger spatial and temporal variability of resource patches in complex landscapes. The results facilitate an understanding of how human landscape modification may change the evolutionary significance of bee dances and ecological interactions, such as pollination and competition between honeybees and other bee species.     

Racial Differences in Division of Labor in Colonies of the Honey Bee (Apis mellifera)

We measured the age at onset of foraging in colonies derived from three races of European honey bees, Apis mellifera mellifera, Apis mellifera caucasica and Apis mellifera ligustica , using a cross-fostering design that involved six unrelated colonies of each race. There was a significant effect of the race of the introduced bees on the age at onset of foraging: cohorts of A. m. ligustica bees showed the earliest onset, regardless of the race of the colony they were introduced to. There also was a significant effect of the race of the host colony: cohorts of bees introduced into mellifera colonies showed the earliest onset of foraging, regardless of the race of the bees introduced. Significant inter-trial differences also were detected, primarily because of a later onset of foraging in trials conducted during the autumn (September–October). These results demonstrate differences among European races of honey bees in one important component of colony division of labor. They also provide a starting point for analyses of the evolution of division of labor under different ecological conditions.     

Response of Reticulitermes spp. (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in northern California to baiting with hexaflumuron with sentricon termite colony elimination system

Colonies of Reticulitermes spp. were baited with prototype and commercial Sentricon stations (Dow AgroSciences LLC, Indianapolis, IN) to test the efficacy of hexaflumuron in different concentrations and bait matrices and to document reinvasion of the foraging territories vacated by eliminated colonies. Seven colonies of Reticuliternes spp. from two sites were characterized with cuticular hydrocarbon analyses and mark-release-recapture and agonistic behavioral studies. Three colonies were observed as controls and four colonies were baited. When a connection between the bait station and the monitoring station could not be confirmed by mark-release-recapture studies, the results of the baiting were equivocal. The monitoring stations of a colony at our wildland site were devoid of termites 406 d after baiting with one Sentricon station, but became reoccupied with the same species of termites approximately 6 mo after baiting. A colony at the residential site was baited with 0.5% hexaflumuron in the Recurit II bait matrix; 60 d later termites were absent from all monitoring stations. These monitoring stations remained unoccupied for > or = 18 mo. Foraging Reticulitermes spp. appeared in three of the seven monitoring stations 18, 24, and 36 mo after baiting, respectively. Using cuticular hydrocarbon analyses and agonistic behavior studies, we determined that the Reticulitermes spp. occupying these monitoring stations were from three different colonies; none were members of the original colony destroyed by baiting. Another colony at the residential site was baited using a noncommercial, experimental bait; 52 d later termites were absent from all monitoring stations. The monitoring stations remained unoccupied for > or = 9 mo. A different Reticulitermes sp. colony invaded one monitoring station 9 mo after baiting.     

Comparison and examination of Bombus occidentalis and Bombus impatiens (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in tomato greenhouses

Experiments were conducted in commercial tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum Miller (Solanaceae), greenhouses to compare the relative foraging effort of two bumble bee species, Bombus occidentalis Greene and Bombus impatiens Cresson, to examine interspecific competition between B. occidentalis and B. impatiens, and to determine whether bumble bee colonies grew to their full population potential in commercial tomato greenhouses. B. impatiens colonies had more brood and workers and made more foraging trips per hour than B. occidentalis colonies. However, B. impatiens returned to the colony without pollen loads and left their colonies without dropping off their pollen loads more frequently than B. occidentalis greenhouse colonies. Our data also suggest that the presence of B. impatiens had a detrimental effect on B. occidentalis populations. Furthermore, B. occidentalis colonies did not grow to their full population potential in tomato greenhouses, with fewer workers in greenhouse colonies than in colonies placed outside in a natural environment, or in colonies that were physically enclosed and protected from external mortality. Together, this study suggests that B. impatiens is a better pollinator than B. occidentalis. It also shows that unknown factors are limiting the size of B. occidentalis colonies in tomato greenhouses.     

Feeding territoriality and the reproductive consequences in brown skuas<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Catharacta antarctica lonnbergi</Emphasis>

In the maritime Antarctic, brown skuas (Catharacta antarctica lonnbergi) show two foraging strategies: some pairs occupy feeding territories in penguin colonies, while others can only feed in unoccupied areas of a penguin colony without defending a feeding territory. One-third of the studied breeding skua population in the South Shetlands occupied territories of varying size (48 to >3,000 penguin nests) and monopolised 93% of all penguin nests in sub-colonies. Skuas without feeding territories foraged in only 7% of penguin sub-colonies and in part of the main colony. Females owning feeding territories were larger in body size than females without feeding territories; no differences in size were found in males. Territory holders permanently controlled their resources but defence power diminished towards the end of the reproductive season. Territory ownership guaranteed sufficient food supply and led to a 5.5 days earlier egg-laying and chick-hatching. Short distances between nest and foraging site allowed territorial pairs a higher nest-attendance rate such that their chicks survived better (71%) than chicks from skua pairs without feeding territories (45%). Due to lower hatching success in territorial pairs, no difference in breeding success of pairs with and without feeding territories was found in 3 years. We conclude that skuas owning feeding territories in penguin colonies benefit from the predictable and stable food resource by an earlier termination of the annual breeding cycle and higher offspring survivorship.Research licence: Umweltbundesamt Bonn 13.4-94003-1/5-7.     

Colony foraging allocation is finely tuned to food distance and sweetness even close to a bee colony

Social bee colonies can allocate their foraging resources over a large spatial scale, but how they allocate foraging on a small scale near the colony is unclear and can have implications for understanding colony decision‐making and the pollination services provided. Using a mass‐foraging stingless bee, Scaptotrigona pectoralis (Dalla Torre) (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Meliponini), we show that colonies will forage near their nests and allocate their foraging labor on a very fine spatial scale at an array of food sources placed close to the colony. We counted the foragers that a colony allocated to each of nine feeders containing 1.0, 1.5, or 2.0 M sucrose solution [31, 43, and 55% sucrose (wt/wt), respectively] at distances of 10, 15, and 20 m from the nest. A significantly greater number of foragers (2.6–5.3 fold greater) visited feeders placed 10 vs. 20 m away from the colony. Foraging allocation also corresponded to food quality. At the 10‐m feeders, 4.9‐fold more foragers visited 2.0 M as compared to 1.0 M sucrose feeders. Colony forager allocation thus responded to both differences in food distance and quality even when the travel cost was negligible compared to normal colony foraging distances (10 m vs. an estimated 800–1 710 m). For a nearby floral patch, this could result in unequal floral visitation and pollination.     

Is food availability limiting African Penguins Spheniscus demersus at Boulders? A comparison of foraging effort at mainland and island colonies

The African Penguin Spheniscus demersus (Vulnerable) formed three new colonies during the 1980s, two on the South African mainland (Stony Point and Boulders) and one on Robben Island. One of the mainland colonies, at Boulders, Simon's Town, is in a suburban area, resulting in conflict with humans. Growth of the Boulders colony was initially rapid, largely through immigration, but has since slowed, possibly as a result of density‐dependent effects either on land (where there has been active management to limit the spread of the colony) or at sea. We test the latter hypothesis by comparing the foraging effort of Penguins feeding small chicks at island and mainland sites, and relate this to the foraging area available to birds. Three‐dimensional foraging paths of African Penguins were reconstructed using GPS and time–depth loggers. There were no intercolony differences in the rate at which birds dived during the day (33 dives/h), in diving depths (mean 17 m, max. 69 m) or in travelling speeds. The maximum speed recorded was 2.85 m/s, with birds travelling faster when commuting (average 1.18 m/s) than when foraging (0.93 m/s) or resting at sea (0.66 m/s during the day, 0.41 m/s at night). There were strong correlations between foraging trip duration, foraging range and total distance travelled. Foraging effort was correlated with chick age at Robben Island, but not at Boulders. Contrary to Ashmole's hypothesis, birds from Boulders (c. 1000 pairs) travelled further (46–53 km) and foraged for longer (13.2 h) than did birds from Robben Island (c. 7000 pairs) and Dassen Island (c. 21 000 pairs) (33 km, 10.3 h). The mean foraging range also differed significantly between mainland (18–20 km) and island colonies (9 km). The area available to central‐place‐foraging seabirds breeding on the mainland is typically less than that for seabirds breeding on islands, but the greater foraging range of Boulders birds results in an absolute foraging area roughly twice that of island colonies, and the area per pair is an order of magnitude greater for the relatively small Boulders colony. Ashmole's hypothesis assumes relatively uniform prey availability among colonies, but our results suggest this does not apply in this case. The greater foraging effort of Boulders birds probably reflects reduced prey availability in False Bay, and thus the recent slowing in growth at the colony may be the result of differential immigration rather than management actions to limit the spatial growth of the colony.     

Territorial Organization of the White Fronted Bee-eater in Kenya

White fronted bee-eaters (Merops bullockoides) live in extended family clans that aggregate to roost and nest in large colonies. Members of a given clan also share a common foraging territory, spatially segregated from the colony, to which they commute daily. The size of this foraging territory is positively related to clan size. Clan foraging territories are divided into a number of loosely overlapping foraging home ranges (FHRs), each occupied by an individual or mated pair of birds. Bee-eaters feed solitarily, flycatching to snap up large insects from widely dispersed perches. Each bird tolerates intrusion on its FHR by various members of its own clan, but aggressively excludes individuals belonging to other clans. Birds defend only their own FHR; however, because of the high amount of FHR overlap, the result is a loose form of group defense of the larger clan feeding area. For this reason we refer to the system as one of clan foraging territories. Birds occupying clan foraging territories located more than 1.5 to 2 km from a colony temporarily abandoned them while feeding nestlings. At such times, these birds provisioned their young by foraging near the colony. Birds that abandoned territories foraged less efficiently, provisioned nestlings at a lower rate, and had lower breeding success than did birds that continued use of their foraging territories. A model is developed relating territory abandonment to the energetics of central place foraging. Bee-eaters typically shift colony locations between successive breeding seasons. Foraging territory locations, in contrast, remain largely stable, resulting in large and unpredictable changes in the quality of any given foraging territory across years (quality being defined as distance from the currently active nesting colony). When a pair bond forms in bee-eaters, one member typically remains in its natal clan while the other moves into the clan of its partner. At this time, the new pair also establishes its own FHR, generally located within or on the periphery of the clan foraging territory of the natal member. The result of this settlement pattern is that white fronted bee-eaters live their lives spatially surrounded by members of their natal or their matrimonial clan. This, in turn, increases the likelihood of both mutualistic and nepotistic interactions among clan members. Such benefits include shared territory defense, enhanced security against predation, and maintenance of close social bonds with potential helpers. We hypothesize that the adaptive value of clan foraging territories lies in long-term familiarity with a foraging area. Such familiarity was demonstrated to lead to improved foraging efficiency and hypothesized to provide both increased security from predation and a more accurate means of monitoring temporal changes in environmental quality. The system of clan foraging territories found in white fronted bee-eaters differs from the all-purpose group territories of most other cooperative breeders studied to date in two important ways. First, foraging territories were not limiting in the sense of restricting dispersal and “forcing” offspring to remain with their natal clans. Unoccupied areas of seemingly suitable habitat were present throughout the study area at all times. Birds also showed no tendency to expand their boundaries or move into areas vacated when neighboring clans decreased in size or died off. Second, breeding status and foraging territory ownership are not linked in Merops bullockoides. All pairs defended foraging areas, yet only about 3/4 of them bred in any given year. This percentage did not differ significantly between pairs occupying high quality foraging territories (located near the active nesting colony) and pairs forced to abandon low quality foraging territories located more distantly. We conclude that foraging territories are not a critical ecological constraining factor for white fronted bee-eaters in Kenya.     

Spatial foraging patterns and colony energy status in the African honey bee,Apis mellifera scutellata

The relationship between changes in foraging patterns (inferred from waggle dance activity) and colony energy status (inferred from brood rearing activity, food storage, and colony weight) was examined for the African honey bee during a period of relative resource abundance and resource dearth. When resources were more abundant mean foraging distances (about 400 m) and foraging areas (4–5 km²) were small, and colonies recruited to 12–19 different sites per day. Colony foraging ranges and sites visited increased slightly during the dearth period, yet foraging continued to be concentrated within less than 10 km². The degree to which fluctuations in foraging patterns were correlated with colony energy status varied with the availability of floral resources. During periods of relative forage abundance, increases in foraging range and number of sites visited were significantly correlated with increases in brood rearing and colony weight. In contrast, colonies examined during periods of resource dearth exhibited no correlations between foraging areas, foraging distances, and fluctuations in brood rearing, food storage, or colony weight. Thus, during dearth periods colonies may not be able to coordinate foraging patterns with changes in colony energy status.     

Hazards of imidacloprid seed coating to Bombus terrestris (Hymenoptera: Apidae) when applied to sunflower.

Seed coating treatments of sunflower by the systemic insecticide imidacloprid was suspected of affecting honey bees and bumblebees. The hypothesis raised was whether imidacloprid could migrate into nectar and pollen, then modify flower attractiveness, homing behavior, and colony development. Our greenhouse and field experiments with Bombus terrestris L. were aimed at the following: the behavior of workers foraging on treated and control plants blooming in a greenhouse, the homing rate of colonies placed for 9 d in a treated field compared with colonies in a control field, and the development of these 20 colonies under laboratory conditions when removed from the fields. In the greenhouse, workers visited blooming heads of treated and control plants at the same rate and the mean duration of their visits was similar. In field colonies, analysis of pollen in hairs and pellets of workers showed that in both fields 98% of nectar foragers visited exclusively sunflowers, whereas only 25% of pollen gatherers collected sunflower pollen. After 9 d, in the control and treated field, 23 and 33% of the marked foragers, respectively, did not return to hives. In both fields, workers significantly drifted from the center to the sides of colony rows. During the 26-d period under field and laboratory conditions, the population increase rate of the 20 colonies was 3.3 and 3.0 workers/d in hives of the control and treated field, respectively. This difference was not significant. New queens were produced in eight colonies in either field. The mean number of new queens per hive was 17 and 24 in the control and treated field, respectively. Their mating rate was the same. It was concluded that applying imidacloprid at the registered dose, as a seed coating of sunflowers cultivated in greenhouse or in field, did not significantly affect the foraging and homing behavior of B. terestris and its colony development.     

Molecular genetic evidence of formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) colony survivorship after prolonged inundation

Levee breaches because of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 inundated 80% of the city of New Orleans, LA. Formosan subterranean termites were observed actively foraging within in-ground monitoring stations within months after this period of flooding. It was unknown if the activity could be attributed to preexisting colonies that survived inundation or to other colonies surviving flooding by being located at higher elevations readily invading these territories. Genotypic profiles of 17 termite colonies collected from eight inundated locations before flooding were compared with termite colonies after flooding from the same locations to determine Formosan subterranean termite survival after sustained flooding. Results indicate that 14 colonies were able to survive inundation for extended periods.     

Foraging activity of the processional termiteHospitalitermes hospitalis (Termitidae: Nasutitermitinae) in the rain forest of Brunei,north-west Borneo

Summary Four colonies of the column-forming termiteHospitalitermes hospitalis (Haviland) were studied in a primary forest in Brunei Darussalam, north-west Borneo, and their trails mapped. The termites leave their nest in the afternoon to graze throughout the night, mainly on lichens growing high up on the trunk of a canopy tree. Colonies foraged from 46% to 72% of nights, and the mean and maximum trail length was 28.8 m and 65.2 m respectively. Each colony utilized between 14 and 26 trees, with many trees revisited and trails frequently re-used. The mean diameter of the utilized trees was significantly larger than the mean diameter of trees in the population at the study site. Termites often made consecutive foraging visits to the largest trees, particularlyShorea spp. At three colonies per hectare the nest density is lower than expected as more than 90% of potentially suitable trees are not exploited.     

Fast repetition rate (FRR) fluorometry: variability of chlorophyll a fluorescence yields in colonies of the corals, Montastraea faveolata (w.) and Diploria labyrinthiformes (h.) recovering from bleaching

Recently, an underwater version of a fast repetition rate fluorometer (FRRF) was developed for the non-destructive study of fluorescence yields in benthic photoautotrophs. We used an FRRF to study bleached colonies of the corals, Montastraea faveolata and Diploria labyrinthiformes at sites surrounding Lee Stocking Island, Exuma, Bahamas, to assess their recovery from bleaching ( approximately 1 year after the initial bleaching event) induced by elevated temperatures. The steady state quantum yields of chlorophyll a fluorescence (DeltaF'/F'(m)) from photosystem II (PSII) within coral colonies were separated into three categories representing visibly distinct degrees of bleaching ranging from no bleaching to completely bleached areas. Differences in DeltaF'/F'(m) were significantly different from bleached to unbleached regions within colonies. Dark, unbleached regions within colonies exhibited significantly higher DeltaF'/F'(m) values (0.438+/-0.019; mean+/-S.D.) when compared to lighter regions, and occupied a majority of the colonies' surface area (46-73%). Bleached regions exhibited significantly lower DeltaF'/F'(m) (0.337+/-0.014) and covered only 7-25% of the colonies' surface area. The observations from this study suggest that zooxanthellae in bleached regions of a colony exhibit reduced photosynthetic activity as long as one year after a bleaching event and that in situ fluorescence techniques such as FRRF are an effective means of studying coral responses and recovery from natural or anthropogenic stress in a non-destructive manner.     

Intraspecific aggression, colony identity and foraging distances in Sudanese Microtermes spp. (Isoptera: Termitidae: Macrotermitinae)

Abstract. 1. Intraspecific aggression between termite major workers was used to obtain estimates of foraging distances for three Microtermes species in Sudan.
2. Maximum foraging distance recorded for M. sp. nr albopartitus (Sjöstedt) in Khartoum was 11.3 m, giving an estimated minimum colony area of 100 m². This is probably an underestimate. In the Tokar Delta, individuals from single colonies of M. najdensis Harris were encountered up to 42 m apart, giving a colony area of 1390 m².
3. Intraspecific aggression could not be used reliably to distinguish members of different colonies of M. lepidus Sjöstedt. Soil barrier formation between groups of workers in petri dishes may be of use as a supplementary technique, especially for species showing no clear aggression.
4. Experiments on isolated laboratory colonics of M. sp. Nr lepidus Sjöstedt, established from alates collected in Khartoum, further confirmed the value of inter-colony aggression for indicating colony identity.
5. The complications introduced into estimation of subterranean termite foraging areas by overlap and interdigitation of colonies are discussed.     

Foraging decisions of individual workers vary with colony size in the greenhead ant Rhytidoponera metallica (Formicidae, Ectatomminae)

Summary. The ability of worker ants to adapt their behaviour depending on the social environment of the colony is imperative for colony growth and survival. In this study we use the greenhead ant Rhytidoponera metallica to test for a relationship between colony size and foraging behaviour. We controlled for possible confounding ontogenetic and age effects by splitting large colonies into small and large colony fragments. Large and small colonies differed in worker number but not worker relatedness or worker/brood ratios. Differences in foraging activity were tested in the context of single foraging cycles with and without the opportunity to retrieve food. We found that workers from large colonies foraged for longer distances and spent more time outside the nest than foragers from small colonies. However, foragers from large and small colonies retrieved the first prey item they contacted, irrespective of prey size. Our results show that in R. metallica, foraging decisions made outside the nest by individual workers are related to the size of their colony.Received 23 March 2004; revised 3 June 2004; accepted 4 June 2004.