Western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) population dynamics

1 The western corn rootworm Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte is a major insect pest of field maize, Zea mays L. Larvae can cause substantial injury by feeding on maize roots. Larval feeding may destroy individual roots or root nodes, and reduce plant growth, stability, and yield. Costs associated with managing corn rootworms in continuous maize are annually one of the largest expenditures for insect management in the United States Corn Belt.
2 Even though D. virgifera virgifera has been studied intensively for over 50 years, there is renewed interest in the biology, ecology, and genetics of this species because of its ability to rapidly adapt to management tactics, and its aggressive invasive nature.
3 This article provides a comprehensive review of D. virgifera virgifera population dynamics, specifically: diapause, larval and adult development, seasonality, spatial and temporal dynamics at local and landscape scales, invasiveness in North America and Europe, and non-trophic interactions with other arthropods.
4 Gaps in current knowledge are identified and discussed especially within the context of challenges that scientists in North America and Europe are currently facing regarding pest dynamics and the need to develop appropriate management strategies for each geographic area.     

Secondary Contact and Admixture between Independently Invading Populations of the Western Corn Rootworm,Diabrotica virgifera virgifera in Europe

The western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), is one of the most destructive pests of corn in North America and is currently invading Europe. The two major invasive outbreaks of rootworm in Europe have occurred, in North-West Italy and in Central and South-Eastern Europe. These two outbreaks originated from independent introductions from North America. Secondary contact probably occurred in North Italy between these two outbreaks, in 2008. We used 13 microsatellite markers to conduct a population genetics study, to demonstrate that this geographic contact resulted in a zone of admixture in the Italian region of Veneto. We show that i) genetic variation is greater in the contact zone than in the parental outbreaks; ii) several signs of admixture were detected in some Venetian samples, in a Bayesian analysis of the population structure and in an approximate Bayesian computation analysis of historical scenarios and, finally, iii) allelic frequency clines were observed at microsatellite loci. The contact between the invasive outbreaks in North-West Italy and Central and South-Eastern Europe resulted in a zone of admixture, with particular characteristics. The evolutionary implications of the existence of a zone of admixture in Northern Italy and their possible impact on the invasion success of the western corn rootworm are discussed.     

International cooperation on western corn rootworm ecology research: state-of-the-art and future research

1 Invasive pest species are challenging partly because the invasion process may be highly dynamic and because of the lack of knowledge of many researchers, professionals and farmers in the newly-invaded regions. The chrysomelid Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte is such an invasive pest. It has been the main pest of continuous maize in the U.S.A. for more than 60 years and is currently spreading throughout Europe.
2 In the area with a long history of this pest (Central and North America), scientific knowledge concerning the ecology of this pest has accumulated over the last decades. This resource is of great importance to both America and Europe and has to be gathered, shared and adapted to new situations. We therefore examined, both qualitatively and quantitatively, the scientific literature relating to D.   virgifera virgifera ecology.
3 The quantitative analysis suggests that research on D.   virgifera virgifera ecology is still in its infancy in Europe and suffers from geographical barriers (between Europe and North America and between linguistic areas within Europe) and that scientific communication should be strengthened both between North America and Europe and within Europe.
4 As a first solution to this problem, we introduce three companion review articles that constitute a landmark for D.   virgifera virgifera research, enabling European and American scientists and decision-makers to orient themselves and discover new opportunities for research. We also stress that international research cooperation is the most important key to successfully manage invasive species.     

European populations of Diabrotica virgifera virgifera are resistant to aldrin,but not to methyl‐parathion

The western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), is a major pest of cultivated corn in North America and has recently begun to invade Europe. In addition to crop rotation, chemical control is an important option for D. v. virgifera management. However, resistance to chemical insecticides has evolved repeatedly in the USA. In Europe, chemical control strategies have yet to be harmonized and no surveys of insecticide resistance have been carried out. We investigated the resistance to methyl‐parathion and aldrin of samples from nine D. v. virgifera field populations originating from two European outbreaks thought to have originated from two independent introductions from North America. Diagnostic concentration bioassays revealed that all nine D. v. virgifera field populations were resistant to aldrin but susceptible to methyl‐parathion. Aldrin resistance was probably introduced independently, at least twice, from North America into Europe, as there is no evident selection pressure to account for an increase of frequency of aldrin resistance in each of the invasive outbreaks in Europe. Our results suggest that organophosphates, such as methyl‐parathion, may still provide effective control of both larval and adult D. v. virgifera in the European invasive outbreaks studied.     

Absence of genetic divergence between western corn rootworms (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) resistant and susceptible to control by crop rotation

The western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), is a major pest of corn, Zea mays L., in North America that has recently invaded Europe. A loss of ovipositional fidelity to cornfields has allowed the species to circumvent crop rotation as a means of control in part of its range in the United States. Analyses of variation at eight microsatellite loci provided no evidence for general genetic differentiation between samples of western corn rootworm collected in soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr., fields and those collected in cornfields both inside and outside the rotation-resistance problem area. This result suggests that few or no barriers to gene flow exist between rotation-resistant and -susceptible rootworm populations. The implications of this result for the management of western corn rootworm in North America and Europe are discussed.     

Relationship between phenotypic traits and selected fitness components of Diabrotica virgifera virgifera

Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) is one of the most important and best-studied maize pests, yet little information is available regarding the basic relationships among its phenotypic traits, particularly those that reflect the overall fitness of this successful invader in Europe and North America. Such information is critical for studies on the invasiveness, behavioural ecology, and management of this pest. Phenotypic traits that change over the lifetime of the beetle were investigated (e.g., fresh body weight) as they can indicate changes in adult physiology or fitness of D. v. virgifera . Phenotypic traits that remain stable over the beetle's lifetime were also investigated (e.g., pronotum width, head capsule width, hind tibia length), as they most likely allow detection of genetic differences between populations. Furthermore, phenotypic traits were investigated that may best predict fecundity (e.g., fresh body weight, elytra width) and life span (e.g., elytra length), as these two factors influence the population growth of this highly invasive species. Finally, regression equations are provided for the age-specific oviposition and survival of the long-living D. v. virgifera adults, which may allow researchers to reduce the duration of their bioassays without losing information.     

Nutritional resources used by the invasive maize pest Diabrotica virgifera virgifera in its new South-east-European distribution range

Food utilization by adults of the invasive maize (Zea mays L.) (Poaceae) pest western corn rootworm (WCR; Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) was investigated in the south‐eastern part of its new European distribution range. At weekly intervals over a 10‐week period, 10 beetles per field were collected from six fields that had a high abundance of flowering weeds and six fields with a low abundance of flowering weeds, with the aim of understanding adult feeding behaviour in Europe and comparing this behaviour with North American WCR. Gut content analysis was performed to determine the use of maize tissue and weed pollen with regard to maize phenology. Furthermore, all pollen found within the gut was quantified and identified to plant species level. The use of maize tissue by adult WCR changed over time according to maize phenology. Pollen originating from plants other than maize was used more frequently as the maize matured. Adults fed on pollen from 19 of 25 different plant species found in maize fields and showed a preference for the pollen of specific weeds. Pollen from weed species was found more often in beetles from fields with a high abundance of weeds compared to beetles from fields with a low abundance of weeds. Females consumed greater amounts of pollen than males, the latter feeding on a wider diversity of host plants. The pollen resources used by adult WCR in Hungary were more diverse compared to WCR in the USA, which may contribute to the invasion success of WCR in Europe.     

Survey for natural enemies of the invasive alien chrysomelid, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera, in Central Europe

The western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), is the mostdestructive pest of maize (Zea mays L.)in North America, and began to successfullyinvade Central Europe in the early 1990's. Thispaper reports a three-year field surveyconducted in Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Croatia,which are currently the focal points ofinvasion, with the aim to determine theoccurrence of indigenous natural enemies ofD. v. virgifera in Europe. A total of9,900 eggs, 550 larvae, 70 pupae and 33,000adults were examined for the occurrence ofparasitoids, nematodes, and fungal pathogens. It can be concluded from the survey resultsthat effective indigenous natural enemies arenot attacking any of the life stages of D.v. virgifera in Europe. The exception is theoccurrence of the fungi Beauveriabassiana (Bals.) Vuill. (Mitosporic fungi;formerly Deuteromyces) and Metarhiziumanisopliae (Metsch.) Sorok (Mitosporic fungi)attacking adults of D. v. virgifera at anextremely low level (< 1%). However no otherentomopathogenic fungal pathogens,entomopathogenic nematodes, or parasitoids werefound on eggs, larvae, pupae or adults. Whileseveral natural enemies in North and CentralAmerica are known to attack D. v.virgifera, it is apparent that indigenousnatural enemies in Europe have not adapted tothe high population density of the alieninvasive species D. v. virgifera. Classical biological control may provide anopportunity to reconstruct the natural enemycomplex of an invading alien pest, and itsapplication to manage D. v. virgiferapopulations in Europe should be considered.     

No Clear Effect of Admixture between Two European Invading Outbreaks of Diabrotica virgifera virgifera in Natura

In this study, we challenged the hypothesis that admixture may have had a positive impact in the context of the European invasion of the western corn rootworm (WCR), Diabrotica virgifera virgifera, LeConte. This beetle was introduced in Europe from the USA several times since the 1980’s. The multiple introductions of this major pest of cultivated corn led to the formation of two major outbreaks in North Western (NW) Italy and in Central and South Eastern (CSE) Europe that eventually merged into a secondary contact zone where insects from both outbreaks interbreed. We collected about 600 insects from this contact zone and genotyped them using 13 microsatellite markers. Three types of information were obtained from the collected individuals: (i) their survival under starvation; (ii) their admixed status, determined through a Bayesian method of genetic clustering and (iii) their mating probability, studied via the detection, isolation and genotyping of sperm in female spermathecae. Twenty six % and 12% of the individuals were assigned to the NW Italy or the CSE Europe parental types, respectively, and 23% and 39% to the F1 and backcross hybrid types, respectively. Globally, our results do not reveal any significant impact of the admixed status on the mating probability and on the choice of mating partners. However the admixed status had a sex- and sampling site-dependent effect on survival in adults under starvation. In addition sex had an effect on survival, with mortality hazard about 3 times larger in males than in females. The consequences of these findings for the evolution of the admixture zone of northern Italy are discussed.     

警惕危险性害虫——玉米根萤叶甲传入我国

本文对玉米根萤叶甲DiabroticavirgiferavirgiferaLeconte的形态、生物学特性和防治等方面进行了综述。根据各方面研究结果对传播到我国的可能性及其可能造成的经济损失进行了预测分析     

The western corn rootworm diabrotica Virgifera virgifera en route to Germany

The western corn rootworm Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte (Col.:Chrysomelidae) (D.v.v.) is one of the most important maize pests in North America. Ever since its invasion into Europe and its detection near Belgrade airport by BACA in 1993 it quickly spread all over southeastern Europe and is now advancing towards central Europe. Up until summer 2004 considered free of D.v.v., Germany is, with the exception of its northern and northeastern borders, surrounded by countries with proven D.v.v. infestations. In addition to simultaneous spot introductions by airplanes, three main routes for terrestrial introduction into Germany are likely: 1. from south to north via Lombardy (Italy) through Switzerland to the State of Baden-Wuerttemberg in the southwest; 2. from south east to northwest via Croatia, Slovenia, Austria into the State of Bavaria; and 3. from Belgium and the Netherlands in southeasterly direction to the state of Northrhine-Westfalia. From these, progress of D.v.v. along route 1 is so far the most advanced. It follows the well established network of road and rail connections through Switzerland and underscores the active role mankind and its technology plays as an active distribution vector for D.v.v. Mandatory crop rotation in the Swiss Canton of Ticino did slow down but could not prevent the northbound advance of D.v.v. in 2004. Considering the recent discovery of D.v.vu near the South German border, its introduction into German territory is only a matter of time and may be ecologically unavoidable. In Slovenla, another relatively small southern transit state, the D.v.v. population density is still much lower than in Switzerland but with significantly increasing trend during 2004 and with special emphasis in its southeastern provinces. Considering its relatively short distance to southeastern Bavaria and the well developed transalpine rail, road and tunnel system, Slovenia as a transit state may provide another access route for D.v.v. of lesser but still significant importance to Germany.     

Selection of entomopathogenic fungi for the control of the western corn rootworm Diabrotica virgifera virgifera

Abstract:  The western corn rootworm Diabrotica virgifera virgifera Le Conte (Col., Chrysomelidae), a serious pest of maize, has been recently introduced into Europe. Several approaches for its control are presently under investigation including microbial agents. During a field survey in Hungary in 2005, naturally occurring entomopathogenic fungi were found to attack this pest. These novel isolates together with standard isolates were tested for virulence against D. v. virgifera larvae and adults. Twenty strains of Metarhizium anisopliae , Beauveria bassiana and Beauveria brongniartii were used in bioassays in the laboratory. Larvae and adults were dipped into a spore suspension with a concentration of 1 × 10⁷ conidia (con.)/ml. They were kept for 14 days at 22°C (±2°C) and 70% relative humidity. The number of infected larvae and adults were counted and infection rates were calculated. Adults were significantly more susceptible to entomopathogenic fungi than larvae. The most virulent isolate infected about 47% of larvae ( M. anisopliae Ma2277), whereas the infection rate in adults was up to 97% ( M. anisopliae Ma2275). Isolates of M. anisopliae caused significantly higher mortalities than isolates of B. brongniartii and B. bassiana . Most of the adult beetles were killed within 12 days. Isolates from D. v. virgifera were more virulent than those from other hosts.     

Wing shape changes: a morphological view of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diabrotica virgifera virgifera</Emphasis> European invasion

An analysis of the hind wing morphology (size and shape) within and among western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, populations over a large geographic scale in Europe was conducted. The changes in hind wing shape and size detected were related to identifiable invasion processes (i.e. multiple introduction events into Europe), first characterised using genetic markers. Overall implications from this work suggest that geometric morphometric techniques can be used to detect population changes related to invasions and could therefore serve as a cheaper and more accessible alternative ‘biomarker’ to more expensive and specialised-use genetic markers, such as microsatellites or SNPs, when investigating biological invasions.     

Behavioral and electrophysiological dose-response relationships in adult western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte) for host pollen amino acids

A strong correlation is shown between taste cell inputs and phagostimulatory outputs with predominant dietary pollen amino acids for western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera. Behavioral and electrophysiological dose-response profiles in adult beetles are presented for five major free amino acids in host pollens. Differential responses were found with strongest phagostimulation and sensory response elicited by L-alanine and L-serine, followed in order by L-proline and beta-alanine. gamma-Aminobutyric acid gave the weakest and most sporadic response. ED(50) values for phagostimulation and chemosensory input were 28.3nmol/disk and 13mM, respectively, for L-alanine and 17nmol/disk and 11mM, respectively, for serine. Threshold values for the responses were approximately 1-2mM. These behavioral and chemosensory dose-response ranges correspond closely to levels of free amino acids present in host plant pollens. Use of these response values in development of a pollen chemosensory code for western corn rootworm feeding is discussed.     

Constructing life-tables for the invasive maize pest Diabrotica virgifera virgifera (Col.; Chrysomelidae) in Europe

Abstract: The western corn rootworm (Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, Col.; Chrysomelidae) is an alien invasive species in Europe. It is a univoltine species with eggs that overwinter in the soil and larvae that hatch in spring. Three larval instars feed on maize roots, which can cause plant lodging and yield loss of economic importance. Adults emerge between mid‐June and early August and can reduce yields through intensive silk feeding. In order to provide a thorough understanding of the population dynamics of this invasive pest species in the invaded European region, complete age specific life‐tables were constructed in two maize fields in southern Hungary assessing the significance of natural mortality factors acting on D. v. virgifera populations. This information provides a rational basis for devising sustainable integrated pest management programmes, in particular, by enabling the identification of vulnerable pest age intervals for the timely application of various management tools. The life‐table for D. v. virgifera in Europe resulted in a total mortality of about 99% from the egg stage in the autumn to the emergence of adult females in the following year (K_Total = 2.48), which is comparable with North America. The highest reduction of D. v. virgifera numbers resulted from the mortality in first instar larvae (94% marginal death rate) and from the unrealized fecundity (80%). However, only the variation in mortality between years can change the generational mortality and thus influence population growth. High variation in the marginal death rate between fields and years was found in the second and third instar larval stages, and in the overwintering egg stage. These mortality factors therefore have the potential to cause changes in the total generational mortality. Furthermore, the life‐table suggested that a high fecundity could compensate for a high generational mortality and would lead to population increase.     

Genome scan of Diabrotica virgifera virgifera for genetic variation associated with crop rotation tolerance

Abstract:  Crop rotation has been a valuable technique for control of Diabrotica virgifera virgifera for almost a century. However, during the last two decades, crop rotation has ceased to be effective in an expanding area of the US corn belt. This failure appears to be due to a change in the insect's oviposition behaviour, which, in all probability, has an underlying genetic basis. A preliminary genome scan using 253 amplified fragment-length polymorphism (AFLP) markers sought to identify genetic variation associated with the circumvention of crop rotation. Samples of D. v. virgifera from east-central Illinois, where crop rotation is ineffective, were compared with samples from Iowa at locations that the behavioural variant has yet to reach. A single AFLP marker showed signs of having been influenced by selection for the circumvention of crop rotation. However, this marker was not diagnostic. The lack of markers strongly associated with the trait may be due to an insufficient density of marker coverage throughout the genome. A weak but significant general heterogeneity was observed between the Illinois and Iowa samples at microsatellite loci and AFLP markers. This has not been detected in previous population genetic studies of D. v. virgifera and may indicate a reduction in gene flow between variant and wild-type beetles.     

Geographical origin of an introduced pest species, Delia radicum (Diptera: anthomyiidae), determined by RAPD analysis and egg micromorphology

The origin of introduction of the cabbage root fly, Delia radicum Linnaeus to the north-eastern coast of North America in the 19th century has been assumed to be from Europe. From that point of introduction, D. radicum gradually spread westward to occupy available ecological niches. DNA fingerprinting and egg micromorphology were used to determine the most likely geographical origin of the North American populations of this species. Forty-five informative RAPD loci obtained from ten primers and three criteria for egg micromorphology were studied. These characters indicated a common origin for the North American populations and a high similarity between populations from North America and north-western Europe. The results suggest a single entrance point of D. radicum into North America, probably via the north-eastern coast (New York area) from north-western Europe. The implications of this study in assisting selection of natural enemies of this important agricultural pest are discussed.     

Screening of entomopathogenic nematodes for virulence against the invasive western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Europe

Entomopathogenic nematode species available in Europe were screened for their efficacy against both the root-feeding larvae and silk-feeding adults of the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte. Laboratory screening tests were aimed at the selection of candidate biological control agents for the management of this invasive alien pest in Europe. Steinernema glaseri, S. arenarium, S. abassi, S. bicornutum, S. feltiae, S. kraussei, S. carpocapsae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora were studied to determine their virulence against third instar larvae and adults of D. v. virgifera in small-volume arenas (using nematode concentrations of 0.5, 0.8, 7.9 and 15.9 infective juveniles cm-2). All nematode species were able to invade and propagate in D. v. virgifera larvae, but adults were rarely infected. At concentrations of 7.9 and 15.9 cm-2, S. glaseri, S. arenarium, S. abassi and H. bacteriophora caused the highest larval mortality of up to 77%. Steinernema bicornutum, S. abassi, S. carpocapsae and H. bacteriophora appeared to have a high propagation level, producing 5970+/-779, 5595+/-811, 5341+/-1177 and 4039+/-1025 infective juveniles per larva, respectively. Steinernema glaseri, S. arenarium, S. feltiae, S. kraussei and H. bacteriophora were further screened at a concentration of 16.7 nematodes cm-2 against third instar larvae in medium-volume arenas (sand-filled trays with maize plants). Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, S. arenarium and S. feltiae caused the highest larval mortality with 77+/-16.6%, 67+/-3.5%, and 57+/-17.1%, respectively. In a next step, criteria for rating the entomopathogenic nematode species were applied based on results obtained for virulence and propagation, and for current production costs and availability in Europe. These criteria were then rated to determine the potential of the nematodes for further field testing. Results showed the highest potential in H. bacteriophora, followed by S. arenarium and S. feltiae, for further testing as candidate biological control agents.     

The ineffectiveness of insecticide seed coatings and planting-time soil insecticides as Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte population suppressors

Abstract:  The effect of any management strategy on pest population levels must be researched and determinations need to be made as to how that strategy might work based on the control objectives. In certain areas of Europe, the objective is to contain or eradicate the western corn rootworm (WCR), Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, population. In order to evaluate the impact of insecticide seed coatings and/or planting-time applications of insecticides as WCR population suppressors, plot trials and large field observations were carried out in Italy over a 5-year period. Larval, pupal and adult densities, along with root damage ratings, were estimated at different locations. Data from these studies revealed that the number of WCR adults emerging from untreated plots did not differ from the number of beetles emerging from those treated with insecticides, whether as seed coating or in-furrow applications. Both seed insecticide coatings (imidacloprid, fipronil, thiamethoxam, tefluthrin) and soil insecticides applied in-furrow (chlorpyrifos, diazinon, tefluthrin) did not reduce the number of beetles emerging from monoculture fields, either in plot trials or large field observations. Observations in the USA had previously shown that soil insecticides applied at planting time partially protected basal roots from economic damage, but did not reduce corn rootworm populations. Similarly, in Europe, it has been demonstrated that not only the application of soil insecticides at planting time but also insecticide seed coatings have no role in the containment and/or eradication of WCR. Although insecticide seed coatings and soil insecticides applied in-furrow may provide protection against economic damage to roots, these management strategies do not have an impact on WCR populations and therefore are useless in WCR containment and eradication programmes.