1.3 A structure of arylsulfatase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa establishes the catalytic mechanism of sulfate ester cleavage in the sulfatase family.

BACKGROUND: Sulfatases constitute a family of enzymes with a highly conserved active site region including a Calpha-formylglycine that is posttranslationally generated by the oxidation of a conserved cysteine or serine residue. The crystal structures of two human arylsulfatases, ASA and ASB, along with ASA mutants and their complexes led to different proposals for the catalytic mechanism in the hydrolysis of sulfate esters. RESULTS: The crystal structure of a bacterial sulfatase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PAS) has been determined at 1.3 A. Fold and active site region are strikingly similar to those of the known human sulfatases. The structure allows a precise determination of the active site region, unequivocally showing the presence of a Calpha-formylglycine hydrate as the key catalytic residue. Furthermore, the cation located in the active site is unambiguously characterized as calcium by both its B value and the geometry of its coordination sphere. The active site contains a noncovalently bonded sulfate that occupies the same position as the one in para-nitrocatecholsulfate in previously studied ASA complexes. CONCLUSIONS: The structure of PAS shows that the resting state of the key catalytic residue in sulfatases is a formylglycine hydrate. These structural data establish a mechanism for sulfate ester cleavage involving an aldehyde hydrate as the functional group that initiates the reaction through a nucleophilic attack on the sulfur atom in the substrate. The alcohol is eliminated from a reaction intermediate containing pentacoordinated sulfur. Subsequent elimination of the sulfate regenerates the aldehyde, which is again hydrated. The metal cation involved in stabilizing the charge and anchoring the substrate during catalysis is established as calcium.     

A novel protein modification generating an aldehyde group in sulfatases: its role in catalysis and disease

In multiple sulfatase deficiency, a rare human lysosomal storage disorder, all known sulfatases are synthesized as catalytically poorly active polypeptides. Analysis of the latter has shown that they lack a protein modification that was detected in all members of the sulfatase family. This novel protein modification generates a 2-amino-3-oxopropanoic acid (Cα-formylglycine) residue by oxidation of the thiol group of a cysteine that is conserved among all eukaryotic sulfatases. The oxidation occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum at a stage when the nascent polypeptide is not yet folded. The aldehyde is part of the catalytic site and is likely to act as an aldehyde hydrate. One of the geminal hydroxyl groups accepts the sulfate during sulfate ester cleavage leading to the formation of a covalently sulfated enzyme intermediate. The other hydroxyl is required for the subsequent elimination of the sulfate and regeneration of the aldehyde group. In some prokaryotic members of the sulfatase gene family, the DNA sequence predicts a serine residue, and not a cysteine. Analysis of one of these prokaryotic sulfatases, however, revealed the presence of the Cα-formylglycine indicating that the aldehyde group is essential for all members of the sulfatase family and that it can be generated from either cysteine or serine. BioEssays 20 :505–510, 1998. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Interaction of arylsulfatase-A (ASA) with its natural sulfoglycolipid substrates: a computational and site-directed mutagenesis study

Arylsulfatase A (ASA) hydrolyzes sulfate esters with a pH optimum of 5. Interactions between p-nitrocatechol sulfate (NCS, artificial substrate) and active site residues of ASA are revealed from their co-crystal structure. Since equivalent ASA interactions with its natural substrates, sulfogalactosylceramide (SGC) and sulfogalactosylglycerolipid (SGG), are not known, we computationally docked SGC/SGG to the ASA crystal structure. Our dockings suggested that Cys69 was the active site residue, and Lys302 & Lys123 as residues anchoring the sulfate group of SGC/SGG to the active site, as observed for NCS. We further confirmed these results using 2 recombinant ASA mutants: C69A and CKK (Cys69, Lys302 and Lys123-all mutated to Ala). Both ASA mutants failed to desulfate SGC/SGG, and CKK showed minimal binding to [¹⁴C]SGC, although C69A still had affinity for this sulfoglycolipid. However, our dockings suggested additional intermolecular hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions between ASA and SGC/SGG, thus contributing to the specificity of SGC/SGG as natural substrates.     

Amino acid residues forming the active site of arylsulfatase A. Role in catalytic activity and substrate binding

Arylsulfatase A belongs to the sulfatase family whose members carry a Calpha-formylglycine that is post-translationally generated by oxidation of a conserved cysteine or serine residue. The formylglycine acts as an aldehyde hydrate with two geminal hydroxyls being involved in catalysis of sulfate ester cleavage. In arylsulfatase A and N-acetylgalactosamine 4-sulfatase this formylglycine was found to form the active site together with a divalent cation and a number of polar residues, tightly interconnected by a net of hydrogen bonds. Most of these putative active site residues are highly conserved among the eukaryotic and prokaryotic members of the sulfatase family. To analyze their function in binding and cleaving sulfate esters, we substituted a total of nine putative active site residues of human ASA by alanine (Asp29, Asp30, Asp281, Asn282, His125, His229, Lys123, Lys302, and Ser150). In addition the Mg2+-complexing residues (Asp29, Asp30, Asp281, and Asn282) were substituted conservatively by either asparagine or aspartate. In all mutants Vmax was decreased to 1-26% of wild type activity. The Km was more than 10-fold increased in K123A and K302A and up to 5-fold in the other mutants. In all mutants the pH optimum was increased from 4.5 by 0.2-0.8 units. These results indicate that each of the nine residues examined is critical for catalytic activity, Lys123 and Lys302 by binding the substrate and the others by direct (His125 and Asp281) or indirect participation in catalysis. The shift in the pH optimum is explained by two deprotonation steps that have been proposed for sulfate ester cleavage.     

Escherichia coli serine hydroxymethyltransferase. The role of histidine 228 in determining reaction specificity.

Serine hydroxymethyltransferase has a conserved histidine residue (His-228) next to the lysine residue (Lys-229) which forms the internal aldimine with pyridoxal 5'-phosphate. This histidine residue is also conserved at the equivalent position in all amino acid decarboxylases and tryptophan synthase. Two mutant forms of Escherichia coli serine hydroxymethyltransferase, H228N and H228D, were constructed, expressed, and purified. The properties of the wild type and mutant enzymes were studied with substrates and substrate analogs by differential scanning calorimetry, circular dichroism, steady state kinetics, and rapid reaction kinetics. The conclusions of these studies were that His-228 plays an important role in the binding and reactivity of the hydroxymethyl group of serine in the one-carbon-binding site. The mutant enzymes utilize substrates and substrate analogs more effectively for a variety of alternate non-physiological reactions compared to the wild type enzyme. As one example, the mutant enzymes cleave L-serine to glycine and formaldehyde when tetrahydropyteroylglutamate is replaced by 5-formyltetrahydropteroylglutamate. The released formaldehyde inactivates these mutant enzymes. The loss of integrity of the one-carbon-binding site with L-serine in the two mutant forms of the enzyme may be the result of these enzymes not undergoing a conformational change to a closed form of the active site when serine forms the external aldimine complex.     

Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate dependent histidine decarboxylase: overproduction, purification, biosynthesis of soluble site-directed mutant proteins, and replacement of conserved residues

The hdc gene coding for the pyridoxal 5'-phosphate dependent histidine decarboxylase from Morganella morganii has been expressed in Escherichia coli under control of the lac promoter. The enzyme accumulates to 7-8% of total cell protein and is purified to homogeneity by passage through three columns. Fourteen site-directed mutant enzymes were constructed to explore the roles of residues of interest, especially those in the sequence Ser229-X230-His231-N epsilon-(phosphopyridoxylidene)Lys232, since identical sequences also appear in several other decarboxylases. Most of the overproduced mutant proteins were aggregated into inclusion bodies, but when the late log phase cultures were cooled from 37 to 25 degrees C before induction, the mutant proteins were obtained as soluble products. Ala or Cys in place of Ser-229 yielded mutant enzymes about 7% as active as wild-type, indicating that this serine residue is not essential for catalysis but contributes to activity through conformational or other effects. Of the replacements made for His-231 (Asn, Gln, Phe, and Arg), only Gln and Asn gave partially active enzymes (about 12% and 0.2% of wild-type, respectively). The side-chain amide of Gln may act by mimicking the positionally equivalent tau-nitrogen on the imidazole ring of histidine to provide an interaction (e.g., a hydrogen bond) required for efficient catalysis. The Lys-232 residue that interacts with pyridoxal 5'-phosphate appears central to catalytic efficiency since replacing it with Ala yields a mutant protein that is virtually inactive but retains the ability to bind both pyridoxal 5'-phosphate and histidine efficiently.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Mechanism of action of cutinase: chemical modification of the catalytic triad characteristic for serine hydrolases

Cutinase from Fusarium solani f. sp. pisi was inhibited by diisopropyl fluorophosphate and phenylboronic acid, indicating the involvement of an active serine residue in enzyme catalysis. Quantitation of the number of phosphorylated serines showed that modification of one residue resulted in complete loss of enzyme activity. One essential histidine residue was modified with diethyl pyrocarbonate. This residue was buried in native cutinase and became accessible to chemical modification only after unfolding of the enzyme by sodium dodecyl sulfate. The modification of carboxyl groups with 1-ethyl-3-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl]carbodiimide in the absence of sodium dodecyl sulfate did not result in inactivation of the enzyme; however, such modifications in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate resulted in complete loss of enzyme activity. The number of residues modified was determined by incorporation of [14C]glycine ethyl ester. Modification of cutinase in the absence of sodium dodecyl sulfate and subsequent unfolding of the enzyme with detergent in the presence of radioactive glycine ester showed that one buried carboxyl group per molecule of cutinase resulted in complete inactivation of the enzyme. Three additional peripheral carboxyl groups were modified in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate. Carbethoxylation of the essential histidine and subsequent incubation with the esterase substrate p-nitrophenyl [1-14C]acetate revealed that carbethoxycutinase was about 10(5) times less active than the untreated enzyme. The acyl-enzyme intermediate was stabilized under these conditions and was isolated by gel permeation chromatography. The results of the present chemical modification study indicate that catalysis by cutinase involves the catalytic triad and an acyl-enzyme intermediate, both characteristic for serine proteases.     

Crystallographic snapshot of a productive glycosylasparaginase-substrate complex

Glycosylasparaginase (GA) plays an important role in asparagine-linked glycoprotein degradation. A deficiency in the activity of human GA leads to a lysosomal storage disease named aspartylglycosaminuria. GA belongs to a superfamily of N-terminal nucleophile hydrolases that autoproteolytically generate their mature enzymes from inactive single chain protein precursors. The side-chain of the newly exposed N-terminal residue then acts as a nucleophile during substrate hydrolysis. By taking advantage of mutant enzyme of Flavobacterium meningosepticum GA with reduced enzymatic activity, we have obtained a crystallographic snapshot of a productive complex with its substrate (NAcGlc-Asn), at 2.0 A resolution. This complex structure provided us an excellent model for the Michaelis complex to examine the specific contacts critical for substrate binding and catalysis. Substrate binding induces a conformational change near the active site of GA. To initiate catalysis, the side-chain of the N-terminal Thr152 is polarized by the free alpha-amino group on the same residue, mediated by the side-chain hydroxyl group of Thr170. Cleavage of the amide bond is then accomplished by a nucleophilic attack at the carbonyl carbon of the amide linkage in the substrate, leading to the formation of an acyl-enzyme intermediate through a negatively charged tetrahedral transition state.     

Structural and electronic properties of the liver fluke heme cavity by nuclear magnetic resonance and optical spectroscopy. Evidence for a distal tyrosine residue in a normally functioning hemoglobin

Structural features of the heme and the heme cavity of the monomeric hemoglobin (Hb) from the platyhelminth Dicrocoelium dendriticum were investigated by optical and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Using nuclear Overhauser effects (NOEs) from resonances assigned previously through isotope labeling, most hyperfine-shifted resonances could be attributed to individual heme and protein protons in the cyano-metHb complex. It was observed that the heme 2-vinyl group is held in the trans orientation by nearby residues, whereas the 4-vinyl group exhibits an equilibrium between cis and trans orientations. NOE experiments in 1H2O allowed the identification of exchangeable protons belonging to the proximal histidine residue (F8) and to a distal residue. Detailed analysis of the NOE patterns obtained from the distal labile proton to non-labile protons and among these latter protons leads to the conclusion that a tyrosine side-chain occupies the distal site E7. Optical spectra of the alkaline-metHb also lead to this view, in that they are not typical of a hydroxy-metHb complex but instead resemble that of a hemin-phenolate or human mutant (M-type) Hb with a tyrosine residue linked to the iron atom. Further evidence for a distal tyrosine residue stems from the occurrence of an unusually stable transient ferrous Hb-cyanide complex, formed upon reduction of cyano-metHb to deoxy-Hb with dithionite. We suggest that the stability of this intermediate is due to a slow re-orientation of a large distal side-chain prior to cyanide dissociation. The sequence of the E-helix, known from the partially determined primary structure, was realigned to accommodate these findings. A frame-shift by one residue now positions a tyrosine at the distal site E7 instead of the originally proposed glycine residue.     

Kinetics of p-nitrophenyl pivalate hydrolysis catalysed by cytoplasmic aldehyde dehydrogenase.

The effects of modifiers (NAD+, NADH, propionaldehyde, chloral hydrate, diethylstilboestrol and p-nitrobenzaldehyde) on the hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl (PNP) pivalate (PNP trimethylacetate) catalysed by cytoplasmic aldehyde dehydrogenase are reported. In each case a different inhibition pattern is obtained to that observed when the substrate is PNP acetate; for example, propionaldehyde and chloral hydrate competitively inhibit the hydrolysis of PNP acetate, but are mixed inhibitors with PNP pivalate. The kinetic results can be rationalized in terms of different rate-determining steps: acylation of the enzyme in the case of the pivalate but acyl-enzyme hydrolysis for the acetate. This is confirmed by stopped-flow studies, in which a burst of p-nitrophenoxide is observed when the substrate is PNP acetate, but not when it is the pivalate. PNP pivalate inhibits the dehydrogenase activity of the enzyme competitively with the aldehyde substrate; this is most simply explained if the esterase and dehydrogenase reactions occur at a common enzymic site.     

Probing the mechanism and improving the rate of substrate-assisted catalysis in subtilisin BPN'

A mutant of the serine protease, subtilisin BPN', in which the catalytic His64 is replaced by Ala (H64A), is very specific for substrates containing a histidine, presumably by the substrate-bound histidine assisting in catalysis [Carter, P., & Wells, J.A. (1987) Science (Washington, D.C.) 237, 394-399]. Here we probe the catalytic mechanism of H64A subtilisin for cleaving His and non-His substrates. We show that the ratio of aminolysis to hydrolysis is the same for ester and amide substrates as catalyzed by the H64A subtilisin. This is consistent with formation of a common acyl-enzyme intermediate for H64A subtilisin, analogous to the mechanism of the wild-type enzyme. However, the catalytic efficiencies (kcat/KM) for amidase and esterase activities with His-containing substrates are reduced by 5000-fold and 14-fold, respectively, relative to wild-type subtilisin BPN, suggesting that acylation is more compromised than deacylation in the H64A mutant. High concentrations of imidazole are much less effective than His substrates in promoting hydrolysis by the H64A variant, suggesting that the His residue on the bound (not free) substrate is involved in catalysis. The reduction in catalytic efficiency kcat/KM for hydrolysis of the amide substrate upon replacement of the oxyanion stabilizing asparagine (N155G) is only 7-fold greater for wild-type than H64A subtilisin. In contrast, the reductions in kcat/KM upon replacement of the catalytic serine (S221A) or aspartate (D32A) are about 3000-fold greater for wild-type than H64A subtilisin, suggesting that the functional interactions between the Asp32 and Ser221 with the substrate histidine are more compromised in substrate-assisted catalysis.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Anaerobic sulfatase-maturating enzymes, first dual substrate radical S-adenosylmethionine enzymes

Sulfatases are a major group of enzymes involved in many critical physiological processes as reflected by their broad distribution in all three domains of life. This class of hydrolases is unique in requiring an essential post-translational modification of a critical active-site cysteine or serine residue to C(alpha)-formylglycine. This modification is catalyzed by at least three nonhomologous enzymatic systems in bacteria. Each enzymatic system is currently considered to be dedicated to the modification of either cysteine or serine residues encoded in the sulfatase-active site and has been accordingly categorized as Cys-type and Ser-type sulfatase-maturating enzymes. We report here the first detailed characterization of two bacterial anaerobic sulfatase-maturating enzymes (anSMEs) that are physiologically responsible for either Cys-type or Ser-type sulfatase maturation. The activity of both enzymes was investigated in vivo and in vitro using synthetic substrates and the successful purification of both enzymes facilitated the first biochemical and spectroscopic characterization of this class of enzyme. We demonstrate that reconstituted anSMEs are radical S-adenosyl-l-methionine enzymes containing a redox active [4Fe-4S](2+,+) cluster that initiates the radical reaction by binding and reductively cleaving S-adenosyl-l-methionine to yield 5 '-deoxyadenosine and methionine. Surprisingly, our results show that anSMEs are dual substrate enzymes able to oxidize both cysteine and serine residues to C(alpha)-formylglycine. Taken together, the results support a radical modification mechanism that is initiated by hydrogen abstraction from a serine or cysteine residue located in an appropriate target sequence.     

Crystallographic and kinetic investigations on the mechanism of 6-pyruvoyl tetrahydropterin synthase

The enzyme 6-pyruvoyl tetrahydropterin synthase (PTPS) catalyses the second step in the de novo biosynthesis of tetrahydrobiopterin, the conversion of dihydroneopterin triphosphate to 6-pyruvoyl tetrahydropterin. The Zn and Mg-dependent reaction includes a triphosphate elimination, a stereospecific reduction of the N5-C6 double bond and the oxidation of both side-chain hydroxyl groups. The crystal structure of the inactive mutant Cys42Ala of PTPS in complex with its natural substrate dihydroneopterinetriphosphate was determined at 1.9 A resolution. Additionally, the uncomplexed enzyme was refined to 2.0 A resolution. The active site of PTPS consists of the pterin-anchoring Glu A107 neighboured by two catalytic motifs: a Zn(II) binding site and an intersubunit catalytic triad formed by Cys A42, Asp B88 and His B89. In the free enzyme the Zn(II) is in tetravalent co-ordination with three histidine ligands and a water molecule. In the complex the water is replaced by the two substrate side-chain hydroxyl groups yielding a penta-co-ordinated Zn(II) ion. The Zn(II) ion plays a crucial role in catalysis. It activates the protons of the substrate, stabilizes the intermediates and disfavours the breaking of the C1'C2' bond in the pyruvoyl side-chain. Cys A42 is activated by His B89 and Asp B88 for proton abstraction from the two different substrate side-chain atoms C1', and C2'. Replacing Ala A42 in the mutant structure by the wild-type Cys by modelling shows that the C1' and C2' substrate side-chain protons are at equal distances to Cys A42 Sgamma. The basicity of Cys A42 may be increased by a catalytic triad His B89 and Asp B88. The active site of PTPS seems to be optimised to carry out proton abstractions from two different side-chain C1' and C2' atoms, with no obvious preference for one of them. Kinetic studies with dihydroneopterin monophosphate reveal that the triphosphate moiety of the substrate is necessary for enzyme specifity.     

UV-induced vanadate-dependent modification and cleavage of skeletal myosin subfragment 1 heavy chain. 2. Oxidation of serine in the 23-kDa NH2-terminal tryptic peptide

Myosin subfragment 1 (S1) can be specifically photomodified at the active site without polypeptide chain cleavage by irradiating the stable MgADP-orthovanadate-S1 complex with UV light above 300 nm [Grammer, J. C., Cremo, C. R., & Yount, R. G. (1988) Biochemistry (preceding paper in this issue)]. Here, the UV spectral properties of photomodified S1 were used to determine the nature and location of the photomodified residue(s) within S1. By comparison of the unusual pH dependence of the UV absorption spectrum of the photomodified S1 to that of the S1-MgADP-Vi complex as a control, the photomodified residue(s) was (were) localized to the 23-kDa NH2-terminal tryptic peptide of the heavy chain. NaBH4 reduced the photomodified S1, but not the control, to regenerate the original spectral properties and ATPase activities of the unmodified S1. Amino acid analysis of photomodified S1 reduced with NaB3H4 gave only [3H]serine, suggesting the hydroxyl group of serine had been oxidized to a "serine aldehyde". The pH dependence of the absorption spectrum of the photomodified enzyme can be explained by an equilibrium between a chromophoric enolate anion of the serine aldehyde (favored in base) and less chromophoric keto and enol forms (favored in acid). The oxidized serine(s) was (were) shown to be directly involved with the vanadate-dependent photocleavage of the S1 heavy chain previously described by Grammer et al. (1988). This serine(s) is (are) likely to be important to the binding and hydrolysis of the gamma-PO4 of ATP at the active site of S1.     

The 2 A resolution structure of the sulfate-binding protein involved in active transport in Salmonella typhimurium

The crystal structure of the liganded form of the sulfate-binding protein, an initial receptor for active transport of sulfate in Salmonella typhimurium, has been solved and refined at 2.0 A resolution (1 A = 0.1 nm). The final model, which consists of 2422 non-hydrogen atoms, one sulfate substrate and 143 water molecules, yields a crystallographic R-factor of 14.0% for 16,959 reflections between 8 and 2 A. The structure deviates from ideal bond lengths and angle distances by 0.015 A and 0.037 A, respectively. The protein is ellipsoid with overall dimensions of 35 A x 35 A x 65 A and consists of two similar globular domains. The two domains are linked by three distinct peptide segments, which though widely separated in the amino acid sequence, are in close proximity in the tertiary structure. As these connecting segments are located near the periphery of the molecule, they further serve as the base or a "boundary" of the deep cleft formed between the two domains. Despite the unusual interdomain connectivity, both domains have similar supersecondary structure consisting of a central five-stranded beta-pleated sheet sandwiched by alpha-helices on either side. The arrangement of the two domains gives rise to the ellipsoidal shape and to the cleft between the two domains wherein the sulfate substrate is found and completely engulfed. A discovery of considerable importance is that the sulfate substrate is tightly held in place primarily by seven hydrogen bonds, five of which are donated by main-chain peptide NH groups, another by a serine hydroxyl and the last by the indole NH moiety of a tryptophan side-chain; there are no positively charged residues, nor cations, nor water molecules within van der Waals' distance to the sulfate dianion. All the main-chain peptide units associated with the sulfate are in turn linked (via the peptide CO group) to arrays of hydrogen bonds. Three of these arrays are composed of alternating peptide units and hydrogen bonds within the solvent-exposed part of three alpha-helices and two are linked to a histidine and an arginine residue. The sulfate-binding protein bears strong similarity to the structures of four other periplasmic binding proteins solved in our laboratory which are specific for L-arabinose, D-galactose/D-glucose, leucine/isoleucine/valine and leucine. The similarity includes the ellipsoidal shape and the two globular domain structures, each domain consisting of a central beta-pleated sheet flanked by alpha-helices.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Ionic properties of an essential histidine residue in pig heart lactate dehydrogenase

1. Pig heart lactate dehydrogenase is inhibited by addition of one equivalent of diethyl pyrocarbonate. The inhibition is due to the acylation of a unique histidine residue which is 10-fold more reactive than free histidine. No other amino acid side chains are modified. 2. The carbethoxyhistidine residue slowly decomposes and the enzyme activity reappears. 3. The essential histidine residue is only slightly protected by the presence of NADH but is completely protected when substrate and substrate analogues bind to the enzyme-NADH complex. The protection is interpreted in terms of a model in which substrates can only bind to the enzyme in which the histidine residue is protonated and is thus not available for reaction with the acylating agent. 4. The apparent pK(a) of the histidine residue in the apoenzyme is 6.8+/-0.2. In the enzyme-NADH complex it is 6.7+/-0.2. 5. Acylated enzyme binds NADH with unchanged affinity. The enzyme is inhibited because substrates and substrate analogues cannot bind at the acylated histidine residue in the enzyme-NADH complex.     

The 1.8 A structure of the complex between chymostatin and Streptomyces griseus protease A. A model for serine protease catalytic tetrahedral intermediates

The naturally occurring serine protease inhibitor, chymostatin, forms a hemiacetal adduct with the catalytic Ser195 residue of Streptomyces griseus protease A. Restrained parameter least-squares refinement of this complex to 1.8 A resolution has produced an R index of 0 X 123 for the 11,755 observed reflections. The refined distance of the carbonyl carbon atom of the aldehyde to O gamma of Ser195 is 1 X 62 A. Both the R and S configurations of the hemiacetal occur in equal populations, with the end result resembling the expected configuration for a covalent tetrahedral product intermediate of a true substrate. This study strengthens the concept that serine proteases stabilize a covalent, tetrahedrally co-ordinated species and elaborates those features of the enzyme responsible for this effect. We propose that a major driving force for the hydrolysis of peptide bonds by serine proteases is the non-planar distortion of the scissile bond by the enzyme, which thereby lowers the activation energy barrier to hydrolysis by eliminating the resonance stabilization energy of the peptide bond.     

Aspartate-beta-semialdehyde dehydrogenase from Escherichia coli. Affinity labeling with the substrate analogue L-2-amino-4-oxo-5-chloropentanoic acid: an example of half-site reactivity

The substrate binding site of aspartate-beta-semialdehyde dehydrogenase from Escherichia coli was studied by affinity labeling with L-2-amino-4-oxo-5-chloropentanoic acid. The substrate analogue irreversibly inactivates the enzyme with pseudo-first-order kinetics and with a half-of-the-sites reactivity. The substrate aspartate beta-semialdehyde protects the enzyme against the inactivation. A single group is labeled at the active site and is concluded to be the side-chain of a histidine residue. The amino acid sequence around the active site residue was established from a peptic digest of the labeled enzyme: Phe-Val-Gly-Gly-Asp-(modified residue)-Thr-Val-Ser.     

Chlorophyllase as a serine hydrolase: identification of a putative catalytic triad

Chlorophyllases (Chlases), cloned so far, contain a lipase motif with the active serine residue of the catalytic triad of triglyceride lipases. Inhibitors specific for the catalytic serine residue in serine hydrolases, which include lipases effectively inhibited the activity of the recombinant Chenopodium album Chlase (CaCLH). From this evidence we assumed that the catalytic mechanism of hydrolysis by Chlase might be similar to those of serine hydrolases that have a catalytic triad composed of serine, histidine and aspartic acid in their active site. Thus, we introduced mutations into the putative catalytic residue (Ser162) and conserved amino acid residues (histidine, aspartic acid and cysteine) to generate recombinant CaCLH mutants. The three amino acid residues (Ser162, Asp191 and His262) essential for Chlase activity were identified. These results indicate that Chlase is a serine hydrolase and, by analogy with a plausible catalytic mechanism of serine hydrolases, we proposed a mechanism for hydrolysis catalyzed by Chlase.