Investigating health at Kerma: sacrificial versus nonsacrificial individuals

This analysis examines heterogeneity in risks by assessing the health status of individuals in two distinct burial contexts from the Nubian site of Kerma: sacrificial (n = 100) and nonsacrificial (n = 190) burial areas dated to the classic Kerma period ( approximately 1750-1500 BC). Indicators of physiological stress that were examined include cribra orbitalia, dental enamel hypoplasia, tibial osteoperiostitis, and femur length. The analysis presented here shows that the people interred in the sacrificial and nonsacrificial burial contexts at Kerma in Upper Nubia had similar health profiles that were comparable with other contemporaneous samples from the region. If sacrificial individuals did not experience the same risk of death as nonsacrificial individuals, it was not evident in the frequencies of nonspecific stress indicators. However, this differential risk of death may be blurred by our inability to examine nonadults for childhood disease. This research demonstrates the complexities involved in understanding the multiple factors that result in heterogeneity in skeletal samples.     

Demographic, temporal and environmental effects on the frequency of cribra orbitalia in three Early Medieval populations from western Slovakia

The frequency of cribra orbitalia was examined in Early Medieval skeletal samples from Devín and Borovce (Slovakia). The effects of environmental and socio-economic factors on the distribution of orbital lesions are explored and discussed. The frequency of cribra orbitalia was lowest in Devín-Hrad (11th-12th c. A.D.), followed by Devín-Za kostolom (9th c. A.D.) and Borovce (8th-beginning of 12th c. A.D.). The increased frequency of cribra orbitalia at Borovce can be attributed to inadequate sanitation and increased pathogen load at this rural site compared to urban Devín. Borovce (BO) sub-adults displayed orbital lesions significantly more frequently than BO adults and sub-adults in the Devín-Za kostolom (FR) and Devín-Hrad (DH) samples. Although the total mortality of sub-adults did not differ between the sites, BO sub-adults with cribra orbitalia showed a considerably higher mortality. Their counterparts from FR and DH showed similar mortality patterns irrespective of the presence of orbital lesions. As in most reference samples, no significant sex differences in the frequency of cribra orbitalia were observed in BO, DH and FR. However, a considerably increased mortality was observed in young males from Devín-Hrad irrespective of the presence of orbital lesions. This finding can be attributed to their involvement in violent conflicts. Reference data from Medieval Central European skeletal samples suggest that an increased occurrence of cribra orbitalia was associated with crop failures, migration and interpersonal conflicts. These factors favour the spread of and vulnerability to infectious diseases, which are considered to be the major cause of iron deficiency anaemia.     

Female biological resiliency: Differential stress response by sex in human remains from ancient Nubia

This research presents male-female differences in stress response evidenced in human remains from the Medieval site of Kulubnarti in Sudanese Nubia. This analysis is unique in that a direct comparison of subadult males and females is rarely possible using archaeological remains. Rather, such analyses invariably rely on evidence of subadult differences retained in adult (sexable) skeletons. In the case of Kulubnarti, natural mummification has made it possible to measure sex-specific differences among subadults as well as adults following five avenues of investigation: 1) mortality, 2) growth and development, 3) enamel hypoplasia, 4) cribra orbitalia, and 5) cortical bone maintenance. A comparison of mean life expectancy (eox) values for males and females aged 10–55+ years revealed a consistent pattern of greater female survivorship, particularly in childhood (age 10 category) where female life expectancy exceeds that of males by 19%. Measures of growth and development, enamel hypoplasia, cribra orbitalia, and cortical bone loss were subsequently used to test a hypothesis of greater female resiliency based on the mortality data. Male-female differences in skeletal maturation are pronounced with male skeletal ages averaging a significant 2.9 years below their dental age. Females show no significant differences with an average skeletal age 0.75 years ahead of dental age. Males begin hypoplasia formation one year earlier than females and, prior to age four, average 18% more hypoplasias (p<0.05). Also, by age 8, males have on average more than twice the frequency of cribra orbitalia (p<0.05). In contrast to their consistent pattern of reduced childhood stress, adult females lose significantly more cortical bone than their male counterparts and have less cortical bone across the adult age range. Nevertheless, females outnumber males of all ages with a sex-ratio below but parallel to that observed in modern populations. The rapid age-related reduction in males relative to females, even in old age, suggests a continuing female resiliency in spite of their greater rate of osteopenia and may reflect a reproductive advantage to the population through heightened female survival and adaptability.     

The Black Death in Hereford,England: A demographic analysis of the Cathedral 14th-century plague mass graves and associated parish cemetery

Objectives

This study explores the paleoepidemiology of the Black Death (1348–52 AD) mass graves from Hereford, England, via osteological analysis. Hereford plague mortality is evaluated in the local context of the medieval city and examined alongside other Black Death burials.

Methods

The Hereford Cathedral site includes mass graves relating to the Black Death and a 12th-16th century parish cemetery. In total, 177 adult skeletons were analyzed macroscopically: 73 from the mass graves and 104 from the parish cemetery. Skeletal age-at-death was assessed using transition analysis, and sex and stress markers were analyzed.

Results

The age-at-death distributions for the mass graves and parish cemetery were significantly different (p = 0.0496). Within the mass graves, young adults (15–24 years) were substantially over-represented, and mortality peaked at 25–34 years. From 35 years of age onwards, there was little variation in the mortality profiles for the mass graves and parish cemetery. Males and females had similar representation across burial types. Linear enamel hypoplasia was more prevalent within the mass graves (p = 0.0340) whereas cribra orbitalia and tibial periostitis were underrepresented.

Conclusions

Mortality within the Hereford mass graves peaked at a slightly older age than is seen within plague burials from London, but the overall profiles are similar. This demonstrates that young adults were disproportionately at risk of dying from plague compared with other age groups. Our findings regarding stress markers may indicate that enamel hypoplasia is more strongly associated with vulnerability to plague than cribra orbitalia or tibial periostitis.     

Osteological and dental markers of health in the transition from the Late Antique to the Early Medieval period in Croatia

The purpose of this study is to analyze health at the transition from the Late Antique (LA) to the Early Medieval (EM) period in Croatia. Results of the analyses of skeletal remains are compared with historical and archaeological data to test the hypothesis that the transition was catastrophic. An additional objective is to determine whether the transition was a uniform process, or differentially affected the past inhabitants of Croatia because of various local considerations. To accomplish this, four markers of health: cribra orbitalia, linear enamel hypoplasia, nonspecific periostitis, and trauma were compared in 981 skeletons: 477 from nine urban LA sites, and 504 from six rural EM sites. Data were collected by sex and age for individual, and for co-occurrences of various features. Because continental and Adriatic Croatia has different ecological features, data were specifically tabulated for the two regions. Comparisons between the continental and Adriatic regions of the LA series showed no significant differences in the frequencies of the analyzed markers of stress. Comparisons between the LA and EM series showed similar frequencies in continental Croatia--suggesting no significant discontinuity of living conditions, and a significant increase of cribra orbitalia, periostitis, and trauma frequencies during the EM period in Adriatic Croatia. The deterioration of living conditions primarily affected subadults and males. These data suggest that the transition from the LA to the EM period in Croatia was not a uniform process, but differentially affected population biology most likely because of local cultural, socio-economical or political considerations.     

Dietary variation and stress among prehistoric Jomon foragers from Japan

Current archaeological evidence indicates that greater dietary reliance on marine resources is recorded among the eastern Jomon, while plant dependence prevailed in western/inland Japan. The hypothesis that the dietary choices of the western/inland Jomon will be associated with greater systemic stress is tested by comparing carious tooth and enamel hypoplasia frequencies between the eastern and western/inland Jomon. Demographic collapse coincides with climate change during the Middle to Late Jomon period, suggesting dwindling resource availability. It is hypothesized that this change was associated with greater systemic stress and/or dietary change among the Middle to Late Jomon. This hypothesis is tested by comparing enamel hypoplasia and carious tooth frequencies between Middle to Late and Late to Final Jomon foragers. Enamel hypoplasia was significantly more prevalent among the western/inland Jomon. Such findings are consistent with archaeological studies that argue for greater plant consumption and stresses associated with seasonal resource depletion among the western/inland Jomon. Approximately equivalent enamel hypoplasia frequencies between Middle to Late and Late to Final Jomon foragers argues against a demographic collapse in association with diminished nutritional returns. Significant differences in carious tooth frequencies are, however, observed between Middle to Late and Late to Final Jomon foragers. These results suggest a subsistence shift during the Middle to Late Jomon period, perhaps in response to a changed climate. The overall patterns of stress documented by this study indicate wide-spread environmentally directed biological variation among the prehistoric Jomon.     

Skeletal manifestations of stress in child victims of the Great Irish Famine (1845–1852): Prevalence of enamel hypoplasia,Harris lines,and growth retardation

The Great Irish Famine of 1845–1852 is among the worst food crises in human history. While numerous aspects of this period have been studied by generations of scholars, relatively little attention has so far been given to the physiological impact it is likely to have had on the people who suffered and succumbed to it. This study examines the prevalence of enamel hypoplasia, Harris lines, and growth retardation in the nonadult proportion of a skeletal population comprising victims of the Famine who died in the workhouse in the city of Kilkenny between 1847 and 1851. The frequency of enamel hypoplasia in these children does not appear to have increased as a consequence of famine, although this fact is likely to be a reflection of the osteological paradox. Harris lines and growth retardation; however, were very prevalent, and the manifestation and age‐specific distribution of these may be indicators of the Famine experience. While there was no clear correlation in the occurrence of the assessed markers, the presence of cribra orbitalia displayed a significant relationship to enamel hypoplasia in 1‐ to 5‐year‐old children. While starvation, metabolic disorders and infectious diseases are likely to have greatly contributed to the manifestation of the markers, the psychosocial stress relating to institutionalization in the workhouse should not be underestimated as a substantial causative factor for skeletal stress in this population. Am J Phys Anthropol 155:149–161, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Health status of the Neolithic population of Alepotrypa Cave, Greece

During the Neolithic, human health and lifestyle changed following the adoption of domesticated plants and animals and sedentism. This paper presents a study on human osteological remains from Alepotrypa Cave, an important and very well-preserved Late and Final Greek Neolithic site occupied from 5000-3200 BC. The Alepotrypa sample comes from primary and secondary burials as well as scattered bone, and consists of a minimum number of 161 individuals. It includes equal proportions of adults and subadults and males and females, is characterized by high child mortality, and falls within the range of other Neolithic sites in terms of age profiles and stature. The most frequent pathological conditions observed in this population are: 1) anemic conditions (cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis), mild or healed in manifestation, most probably of nutritional origin, resulting from a poor diet focused on terrestrial resources such as domesticated cereals; 2) osteoarthritis and musculoskeletal stress markers, indicative of increased physical activity and heavy workloads; and 3) elevated prevalence of healed, depressed cranial fractures, serving as evidence of violent, nonlethal confrontations. Teeth exhibit a low prevalence of dental carries and linear enamel hypoplasia. The overall demographic, pathological, and behavioral results are consistent with observations of Neolithic populations elsewhere in Greece and the Mediterranean.     

Environmental stress in the Early Mediaeval Slavic population at Borovce (Slovakia)

Several palaeopathological indicators examined in skeletal samples are caused by stress during childhood and remain visible in adults. In this study, dental enamel hypoplasia was observed in 451 individuals from the Early Mediaeval (8th to beginning of 12th c. AD) Slavic skeletal series at Borovce (Slovakia). The presence of enamel hypoplasia was scored in all types of deciduous and permanent teeth. More than one-fourth (27.2%) of the individuals with preserved permanent teeth showed enamel hypoplasia. No significant differences in the occurrence of the enamel lesions were found between males and females. The age at development of hypoplasias was estimated for 74 individuals by measuring the distance of the defect from the cemento-enamel junction. The hypoplastic defects appeared most frequently between 2.5 and 3.0 years. Following the trends observed in the distribution of age at development of the enamel lesions between subadults and adults, individuals stressed earlier in life had a reduced ability to cope with later insults. High prevalence of enamel hypoplasia, especially among 10–14-year-old growing juveniles, has led to the assumption that the Borovce population lived a considerably long period under conditions of high environmental pathogen load, and probably also suffered from some nutritional deficiencies.     

Osteology of a slave burial population from Barbados,West Indies

A unique seventeenth–nineteenth century slave cemetery population from Newton plantation, Barbados, allows examination of craniodental characters in relation to ethnohistorical data. Age-at-death estimates suggest life expectancy at birth of 29 years and low infant mortality; historical demography, however, suggests life expectancy of 20 years and very high infant mortality. Tooth decay, bilateral tooth loss, periodontal disease, root hypercementosis, and severe enamel hypoplasia are high in frequency. The teeth yield evidence of such cultural practices as pipe-smoking and incisor mutilation. Several skeletal features reflect periodic near-starvation. Directional and fluctuating dental asymmetry, relative tooth size, and hypoplasia distribution suggest slaves experienced considerable weaning trauma; metabolic stress at this time exceeded that of prenatal and immediate postnatal periods. Odontometrics and dental and cranial nonmetric traits indicate that modern Blacks are intermediate between the ancestral slaves and modern Whites but more similar to the latter, suggesting effects of environmental covariance exceed those of genetic admixture. Nonmetric trait distributions show nonrandom patterns according to area of burial in the cemetery, a possible result of family segregation.     

Enamel hypoplasia in ancestral Puebloan populations from southwestern Colorado: I. Permanent dentition

Dental enamel hypoplasias are used to examine metabolic disruption experienced during early childhood by ancestral Puebloan (Anasazi) inhabitants of southwestern Colorado. The hypoplasia sample consists of the permanent anterior dentition from 147 individuals from Montezuma County and Mesa Verde National Park. Using the individual as the basis of analysis, the study compares different time periods of occupation of the region with respect to prevalence and timing of hypoplasia occurrence. The frequency of enamel hypoplasia in the combined regional sample is high, affecting 90% of the individuals and 66% of the anterior teeth. The earliest onset of hypoplasia in individuals occurs most commonly at 2.5–3.0 years, and the peak age for enamel disruption is 3.0–3.5 years. There are no significant differences in hypoplasia frequency or timing between males and females or between adults and subadults. The level of childhood stress appears to have increased significantly with time from the Basketmaker III to the Pueblo I and Pueblo II periods, then decreased slightly during the Pueblo III. The differences between the Pueblo I, II, and III periods are not significant. The Pueblo II sample from Yellow Jacket Canyon sites 5MT1 and 5MT3 and the Dolores Pueblo I sample show the highest levels of childhood stress in comparison to other Puebloan populations inhabiting this region prior to A.D. 1300. Am. J. Phy. Anthropol. 102:351–367, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Health and differential survival in prehistoric populations: prenatal dental defects.

Linear hypoplasia of the deciduous teeth is rare in most human populations, but common where nutritional status is poor. Deciduous enamel hypoplasia, hypocalcification, and hypoplasia-related caries are described in Middle and Late Woodland skeletal series from the Lower Illinois Valley. Gross enamel defects that can be referred to pre-natal development are found in 83 of 170 children under six years of age at death. Circular caries secondary to hypoplasia is significantly more common in the Late Woodland series, reflecting the apparent higher cariogenicity of Late Woodland diets. There is a significant association between prenatal dental defects and bony evidence for anemia and infectious disease. Children with enamel defects show relatively higher weaning age mortality than those without. These relationships suggest that at least moderate levels of malnutrition existed in Illinois Woodland populations.     

Linear enamel hypoplasias as indicators of systemic physiological stress: evidence from two known age-at-death and sex populations from postmedieval London

Enamel hypoplasias are useful indicators of systemic growth disturbances during childhood, and are routinely used to investigate patterns of morbidity and mortality in past populations. This study examined the pattern of linear enamel hypoplasias in two different burial populations from 18th and 19th Century church crypts in London. Linear enamel hypoplasias on the permanent dentitions of individuals from the crypt of Christ Church, Spitalfields, were compared to enamel defects on the teeth of individuals from St. Bride's. The method used involves the identification of enamel defects at a microscopic level, and systemic perturbations are detected by matching hypoplasias among different tooth classes within each individual. The pattern of linear enamel hypoplasias was contrasted between individuals from the burial sites of Spitalfields and St. Bride's, between males and females, and between those aged less than 20 years of age and those aged over 20 years at death. Six different parameters were examined: frequency of linear enamel hypoplasias, interval between defects, duration of hypoplasias, age at first occurrence of hypoplasia, age at last occurrence of hypoplasia, and the percentage of enamel formation time taken up by growth disturbances. All individuals in the study displayed linear enamel hypoplasias, with up to 33% of total visible enamel formation time affected by growth disruptions. Multiple regression analysis indicated a number of significant differences in the pattern of enamel hypoplasias. Individuals from Spitalfields had shorter intervals between defects and greater percentages of enamel formation time affected by growth disturbances than did individuals from St. Bride's. Females had greater numbers of linear enamel hypoplasias, shorter intervals between defects, and greater percentages of enamel formation time affected by growth disturbances than males. There were also differences in the pattern of enamel hypoplasias and age at death in this study. Individuals who died younger in life had an earlier age at first occurrence of enamel hypoplasia than those who survived to an older age. The pattern of enamel hypoplasias detected in this study was influenced by tooth crown geometry and tooth wear such that most defects were found in the midcrown and cervical regions of the teeth, and greater numbers of defects were identified on the anterior teeth. Differences in sensitivity of the parameters used for the detection of enamel hypoplasias were found in this study. The percentage of visible enamel formation time affected by growth disturbances was the parameter that identified the greatest number of significant differences among the subgroups examined.     

Subadult stress,morbidity, and longevity in Latte Period populations on Guam,Mariana Islands

The frequency and age distribution of linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) in the dentition of 293 individuals from Latte Period sites (AD 800–1521) on Guam, Mariana Islands, are examined in this study. Individuals dying as subadults (before age 16) and as young adults (ages 16–21) have more frequent LEHs than those who survived to middle or late adulthood, documenting a relationship between LEH-causing stress events and reduced life expectancy. The age distributions of cribra orbitalia and skeletal infection in children who died by age 10 exhibit striking similarities to the etiological age patterns of LEH in children, and those with skeletal infection have more frequent hypoplasias than children without infection. The comorbidity of systemic stress and infection in children, and their impact on life expectancy, are interpreted in the biocultural context of high population density in the large coastal villages of the late prehistoric period in the Marianas. Am J Phys Anthropol 104:363–380, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Impact of industrialization: comparative study of child health in four sites from medieval and postmedieval England (A.D. 850-1859)

The morbidity and mortality profiles of 831 non-adult skeletons from four contrasting sites in medieval and postmedieval England were compared to assess whether urbanization and later industrialization, had a detrimental effect on the health of the inhabitants. Failure in the population's ability to adapt to these environments should be evident in the higher rates of mortality, retarded growth, higher levels of stress, and a greater prevalence of metabolic and infectious disease in the urban groups. Non-adult skeletons were examined from Raunds Furnells in Northamptonshire, from St. Helen-on-the-Walls and Wharram Percy in Yorkshire, and from Christ Church Spitalfields in London. Results showed that a greater number of older children were being buried at the later medieval sites and that the skeletal growth profiles of the medieval urban and rural children did not differ significantly. A comparison of the growth profiles of St. Helen-on-the-Walls (urban) and Spitalfields (industrial) showed that the Spitalfields children were up to 3 cm shorter than their later medieval counterparts. At Spitalfields, cribra orbitalia and enamel hypoplasias occurred during the first 6 months of life, and 54% of the non-adults had evidence of metabolic disease. It is argued that differences in the morbidity and mortality of non-adults from urban and rural environments did exist in the past, but that it was industrialization that had the greatest impact on child health. Environmental conditions, urban employment, socioeconomic status, and changes in weaning ages and infant feeding practices contributed to differences in health in rural, urban, and industrial environments.     

Infant feeding practice in medieval Japan: Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of human skeletons from Yuigahama‐minami

A longer breastfeeding duration provides various positive effects in subadult health because of abundant immunological factors and nutrients in human breast milk, and decreases the natural fertility of a population through lactational amenorrhea. In this study, we measured stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in the bone collagen of three adults and 45 subadults from the Yuigahama‐minami site (from 12th to 14th century) in Kamakura, the early medieval capital of Japan. Marine foods, C₃‐based terrestrial foods, and freshwater fish are the primarily protein sources for adults. The changes in the nitrogen isotope ratios of subadults suggest that the relative dietary protein contribution from breast milk started to decrease from 1.1 years of age and ended at 3.8 years. The age at the end of weaning in the Yuigahama‐minami population was greater than that in the typical non‐industrial populations, a premodern population in the Edo period Japan, and medieval populations in the UK. Skeletons of townspeople from medieval Kamakura indicate severe nutritional stress (e.g., enamel hypoplasia and cribra orbitalia), yet this longer duration of breastfeeding did not compensate adverse effects for nutritional deficiency. The longer breastfeeding period may have been a consequence of complementary food shortage and bad health of subadults. Kamakura experienced urbanization and population increase in the early medieval period. The younger age‐at‐death distribution and high nutritional stresses in the Yuigahama‐minami population and later weaning, which is closely associated with longer inter‐birth interval for mothers, suggests that Kamakura developed and increased its population by immigration during urbanization. Am J Phys Anthropol 156:241–251, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Linear enamel hypoplasia at Xcambó, Yucatán, during the Maya Classic period: An evaluation of coastal marshland impact on ancient human populations

Non-specific stress markers such as linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) have been associated in the literature with a large number of possible conditions disrupting the individual's homeostasis, though metabolic strain originating synergistically by disease and malnutrition has been held to be the main cause behind enamel disruption. The analysis of LEH in the Maya Classic period site of Xcambó, located along the northern coast of the Yucatán peninsula, reveals high exposure to stressful conditions during infancy regardless of age and sex. Yet, the inhabitants of the site were of a medium to high social and economic status, with access to balanced and protein-rich nutritional resources, which should have functioned as a cultural buffer to the impact of stress. In the light of this apparent contradiction, this paper discusses the impact of environmental conditions on the record of metabolic stress. Our conclusions pose a cautionary caveat for inferring nutrition and status in ancient pre-antibiotic populations solely from the occurrence of linear enamel hypoplasia.     

Patterns of enamel hypoplasia in two medieval populations from Nubia's Batn el Hajar

Analysis of enamel hypoplasia frequencies for two medieval populations representing the earliest and latest Christian periods of ancient Nubia reveals important diachronic shifts in childhood stress. The mean frequency for hypoplastic bands among the early Christians is 4.2, while the late Christian sample has a mean frequency of 3.7. In addition, the earlier Christians show a prolongation of hypoplastic occurrences through childhood corresponding to a prolonged period of intensified childhood mortality. The modal time interval between hypoplastic occurrences is also shorter for the early Christian children. A comparison of hypoplasia frequencies by sex also reveals a pattern of considerable interest. Females show both lower frequencies of hypoplasias as well as a delay in onset. The diachronic differences are consistent with other indications from paleopathology and paleodemography that childhood stress decreased in later Christian times. The sex differences suggest that during the infancy and early childhood females were more resilient than their male counterparts.     

Dental health and lifestyle in four early mediaeval juvenile populations: Comparisons between urban and rural individuals, and between coastal and inland settlements

Dental stress markers such as enamel hypoplasia and caries are suitable indicators of population health and lifestyle, although they must be recorded and interpreted carefully. To date, they have been predominantly studied in adult samples, whereas juvenile remains are also affected by these lesions. In this study, dental enamel hypoplasia and caries were both evaluated on 613 non-adult individuals from four early mediaeval Moravian and Frankish skeletal series, who had experienced contrasting environments and lifestyles. The aim of this study is to assess the relationship between these biological traits and living conditions, and how this is manifested in the juvenile dental remains.Significant differences between populations were found in stress markers, dental lesions and the way these were manifested. Exposure to stressful conditions varies between urban and rural populations and is related to age groups. Although the children under investigation seem to have had different diets, it is difficult to distinguish the biological contribution (different enamel susceptibility) from the lifestyle contribution (different food, environment) in the formation of caries. Moreover, such studies must be interpreted carefully due to the possibility of intra- and inter-observer errors and the subjectivity of the scoring techniques.Nevertheless, this study also demonstrates that results of an investigation of juvenile skeletal remains can be as informative as a study of adults and that juvenile skeletons can be included in large bioarchaeological population studies.     

Developmental abnormalities of the permanent dentition in prehistoric Ohio Valley Amerindians

The frequencies of developmental abnormalities in size, shape, number of teeth, and enamel formation are presented for a sample of 389 prehistoric Ohio Valley Amerindians from the following cultural complexes: Glacial Kame, Adena, Ohio Hopewell, Cole, Fort Ancient, and Erie (Whittlesey Focus). In addition, the magnitude of fluctuating asymmetry is determined for each tooth and for individuals of these groups. Tests of association indicate complexes with Late Diffuse economic adaptations (Glacial Kame, Adena, Hopewell) exhibit significantly higher frequencies of numerical abnormalities of M₃ and M³ enamel pearls, while Late Focal complexes (Cole, Fort Ancient, Erie) exhibit a higher frequency of severe, general linear enamel hypoplasia. The magnitude of fluctuating asymmetry is, however, generally the same in the Late Diffuse and Late Focal groups. The occurrence of two rare abnormalities with large genetic components, essentially limited to one Hopewell and one Adena mound, raises the possibility that the individuals interred in these mounds are biologically related. Since it is widely held that mound burials represent a status class of the population, it is likely that the Late Diffuse sample is biased in favor of a number of highly select population segments each of which contains biologically related individuals. Accordingly, the lower frequency of severe, general linear enamel hypoplasia in Late Diffuse groups is hypothesized as the result of the more advantageous circumstances expected for high status individuals, and the higher frequencies of numerical abnormalities of M₃ and M³ enamel pearls are hypothesized primarily as the result of mitigated selection on masticatory complex integration, and/or a biased sample. Comparisons with the deciduous dentition show the permanent teeth exhibit higher frequencies of developmental abnormalities. This result is explicable in terms of the more favorable developmental environment of the primary teeth, or a stronger developmental canalization.