Variation of mandible size in red deer<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus hispanicus</Emphasis> from southern Spain

An osteometric study was carried out on 126 mandibles of male and female deerCervus elaphus hispanicus Linnaeus, 1758 hunted between 1992 and 1998 in Sierra Morena (SE Spain). Age of animals was estimated in months using thin sections of the first lower molar (M1). Length measurements of the mandible were plotted against age. An analysis of variance was used to assess the influence of year of birth, sex, size of estates and deer abundance within each closed estate on mandible length. Results reveal a differential growth between males and females, along with differences in jaw morphology. Growth is complete at 55–56 months (4.5–5 years) in females and at 80–85 months (6.5–7 years) in males. The jaw angle, the condylar process and the coronoid process are larger in males. All measurements were larger in animals born in 1989 or earlier, and lower in animals born after 1993, revealing the strong influence of climatic conditions. A negative effect of the deer abundance on growth was also observed.     

Responses of red deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus)</Emphasis> to regular disturbance by hill walkers

Disturbance to wildlife from human recreational activities is increasing as remote areas become accessible to greater numbers of people. We used Global Positioning System tracking collars to monitor the movements of red deer (Cervus elaphus) stags (n = 8) in a herd whose feeding grounds lie close to a popular walking track in the Highlands of Scotland. The track is used by around 20,000 walkers per year and is busiest in summer and at weekends. In a 2-year study, the locations of collared deer were recorded at 2-h intervals on typically busy days (Sundays: mean number of walkers = 204) and quiet days (Wednesdays: mean number of walkers = 49) during May and June. The deer were consistently further from the track on Sundays than Wednesdays (371 vs 286 m) and moved greater distances between fixes (365 vs 308 m). The amount of time spent (percentage of total fixes) in the small area of grassland closest to the track was lower on Sundays than Wednesdays (6% vs 13%). Although 97% of walkers use the track during the day (between 0800 and 2000 h), there was no evidence of compensatory use of grassland at night, when the deer moved to higher ground dominated by heather moorland. The results demonstrate that animals which appear to be habituated to regular disturbance within their home territory may nevertheless alter their behaviour and potentially diet composition, as a result of that disturbance.     

Antler growth rate in yearling Iberian red deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus hispanicus</Emphasis>)

The aims of this study were to describe first antler growth rate and the factors affecting it. Growth rate reached a peak in week 14. Mean first antler growth rate during the whole growing period was 1.95 ± 0.05 cm/week. Lactation influenced antler growth rate as this was positively affected by total protein yield, while antlers grew at a lower rate the later they started to grow.     

Growth of the first antler in Iberian red deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus hispanicus</Emphasis>)

In this study, we describe the process of pedicle and first antler growth in Iberian red deer (Cervus elaphus hispanicus) and document relationships among body development, maternal milk supply and composition, and maternal weight on the length of first antlers. Antler length of 53 males of Iberian red deer was measured every 2 weeks from birth to 20 months of age. Deer weight, age, and the date of occurrence of the major events during the antler growth cycle were also recorded. The first evidence of pedicle development occurred when the animals were 38.0 ± 0.6 weeks old and weighed 60.7 ± 0.9 kg. Antler cleaning took place at a mean age of 63.8 ± 0.7 weeks and a mean weight of 91.5 ± 1.8 kg. The antler growth period lasted 16.7 ± 0.4 weeks, and the cleaning period lasted 5.1 ± 0.4 weeks. First antler growth followed a sigmoid curve, reaching a final length of 38.3 ± 1.0 cm. Antler length was positively correlated with body weight during the antler growth cycle. Additionally, the final length of the first antler was related to total milk yield, date of antler growth initiation, body weight at 6 months of age, and the antler growth time interval.     

Identification of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aspergillus</Emphasis> section <Emphasis Type="Italic">Flavi</Emphasis> in maize in northeastern China

Bremia lactucae Regel (Chromista, Peronosporaceae) is an economically destructive pathogen, which causes downy mildew disease on lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) worldwide. The ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of Bremia lactucae isolates was analyzed for the first time. The ITS region of lettuce downy mildew was observed to have a size of 2458 bp; thereby, having one of the longest ITS sizes recorded to date. The majority of the extremely large sized ITS2 length of 2086 was attributed to the additional presences of nine repetitive elements with lengths of 179–194 bp, which between them shared the low homology of 48–69%. Comparison of the ITS2 sequences with the B. lactucae isolates from other host plants showed that isolates present on Lactuca sativa were distinct from those on L. indica var. laciniata, as well as Hemistepta and Youngia. We suggest the high degree of sequence heterogeneity exhibited in the ITS2 region of B. lactucae may warrant the specific detection and diagnosis of this destructive pathogen or its division into several distinct species.     

Prevalence,intensity and associated factor analysis of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tropilaelaps</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">mercedesae</Emphasis> infesting <Emphasis Type="Italic">Apis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">mellifera</Emphasis> in China

Tropilaelaps mercedesae is a serious ectoparasite of Apis mellifera in China. The aim of this study was to investigate the infestation rates and intensity of T. mercedesae in A. mellifera in China, and to explore the relative importance of climate, district, management practices and beekeeper characteristics that are assumed to be associated with the intensity of T. mercedesae. Of the 410 participating apiaries, 379 apiaries were included in analyses of seasonal infestation rates and 352 apiaries were included in multivariable regression analysis. The highest infestation rate (86.3%) of T. mercedesae was encountered in autumn, followed by summer (66.5%), spring (17.2%) and winter (14.8%). In autumn, 28.9% (93) of the infested apiaries were in the north (including the northeast and northwest of China), 71.1% (229) were in the central and south (including east, southeast and southwest China), and 306 apiaries (82.9%) were co-infested by both T. mercedesae and Varroa. Multivariable regression analysis showed that geographical location, season, royal jelly collection and Varroa infestation were the factors that influence the intensity of T. mercedesae. The influence of beekeeper’s education, time of beekeeping, operation size, and hive migration on the intensity of T. mercedesa was not statistically significant. This study provided information about the establishment of the linkage of the environment and the parasite and could lead to better timing and methods of control.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>1<Emphasis Type="Italic">/copia</Emphasis>- and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ty</Emphasis>3<Emphasis Type="Italic">/gypsy</Emphasis>-like DNA sequences in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Helianthus </Emphasis>species

Two repeated DNA sequences isolated from a partial genomic DNA library of Helianthus annuus, p HaS13 and p HaS211, were shown to represent portions of the int gene of a Ty3 /gypsy retroelement and of the RNase-Hgene of a Ty1 /copia retroelement, respectively. Southern blotting patterns obtained by hybridizing the two probes to BglII- or DraI-digested genomic DNA from different Helianthus species showed p HaS13 and p HaS211 were parts of dispersed repeats at least 8 and 7 kb in length, respectively, that were conserved in all species studied. Comparable hybridization patterns were obtained in all species with p HaS13. By contrast, the patterns obtained by hybridizing p HaS211 clearly differentiated annual species from perennials. The frequencies of p HaS13- and p HaS211-related sequences in different species were 4.3x10(4)-1.3x10(5) copies and 9.9x10(2)-8.1x10(3) copies per picogram of DNA, respectively. The frequency of p HaS13-related sequences varied widely within annual species, while no significant difference was observed among perennial species. Conversely, the frequency variation of p HaS211-related sequences was as large within annual species as within perennials. Sequences of both families were found to be dispersed along the length of all chromosomes in all species studied. However, Ty3 /gypsy-like sequences were localized preferentially at the centromeric regions, whereas Ty1/ copia-like sequences were less represented or absent around the centromeres and plentiful at the chromosome ends. These findings suggest that the two sequence families played a role in Helianthusgenome evolution and species divergence, evolved independently in the same genomic backgrounds and in annual or perennial species, and acquired different possible functions in the host genomes.     

Revision of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Serrulati</Emphasis> species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Penstemon</Emphasis> section <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccanthera</Emphasis> subsection <Emphasis Type="Italic">Serrulati</Emphasis>

A revision of Penstemon sect. Saccanthera subsect. Serrulati includes a new species (P. salmonensis), a new variety (P. triphyllus var. infernalis), and the elevation of a subspecies to species (P. curtiflorus), bringing the total number of species to eight, which are keyed and described, complete with nomenclature and type citations.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Galleria</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">mellonella</Emphasis> are Resistant to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pneumocystis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">murina</Emphasis> Infection

Studying Pneumocystis has proven to be a challenge from the perspective of propagating a significant amount of the pathogen in a facile manner. The study of several fungal pathogens has been aided by the use of invertebrate model hosts. Our efforts to infect the invertebrate larvae Galleria mellonella with Pneumocystis proved futile since P. murina neither caused disease nor was able to proliferate within G. mellonella. It did, however, show that the pathogen could be rapidly cleared from the host.     

Experimental transmission of bovine spongiform encephalopathy to European red deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus elaphus</Emphasis>)

Background

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), a member of the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE), primarily affects cattle. Transmission is via concentrate feed rations contaminated with infected meat and bone meal (MBM). In addition to cattle, other food animal species are susceptible to BSE and also pose a potential threat to human health as consumption of infected meat products is the cause of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, which is invariably fatal. In the UK, farmed and free ranging deer were almost certainly exposed to BSE infected MBM in proprietary feeds prior to legislation banning its inclusion. Therefore, although BSE has never been diagnosed in any deer species, a possible risk to human health remains via ingestion of cervine products. Chronic wasting disease (CWD), also a TSE, naturally infects several cervid species in North America and is spreading rapidly in both captive and free-ranging populations.

Results

Here we show that European red deer (Cervus elaphus elaphus) are susceptible to intra-cerebral (i/c) challenge with BSE positive cattle brain pool material resulting in clinical neurological disease and weight loss by 794–1290 days and the clinical signs are indistinguishable to those reported in deer with CWD. Spongiform changes typical of TSE infections were present in brain and accumulation of the disease-associated abnormal prion protein (PrP^d) was present in the central and peripheral nervous systems, but not in lymphoid or other tissues. Western immunoblot analysis of brain material showed a similar glycosylation pattern to that of BSE derived from infected cattle and experimentally infected sheep with respect to protease-resistant PrP isoforms. However, the di-, mono- and unglycosylated bands migrated significantly (p < 0.001) further in the samples from the clinically affected deer when compared to BSE infected brains of cattle and sheep.

Conclusion

This study shows that deer are susceptible to BSE by intra-cerebral inoculation and display clinical signs and vacuolar pathology that are similar to those of CWD. These findings highlight the importance of preventing the spread to Europe of CWD from North America as this may necessitate even more extensive testing of animal tissues destined for human consumption within the EU. Although the absence of PrP^d in lymphoid and other non-neurological tissues potentially limits the risk of transmission to humans, the replication of TSE agents in peripheral tissues following intra-cerebral challenge is often limited. Thus the assessment of risk posed by cervine BSE as a human pathogen or for environmental contamination should await the outcome of ongoing oral challenge experiments.

     

Phylogeography and founder effect of the endangered Corsican red deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus corsicanus</Emphasis>)

Red deer (n = 149) from eight geographical locations, including the endangered endemic populations from the Tyrrhenian islands (Sardinia and Corsica), were analysed at eight polymorphic microsatellite loci. Two questions were addressed: (1) Is there a founder effect in the Corsican population, which was reintroduced to the island using Sardinian deer after the species’ extinction on Corsica? (2) What is the origin of the Tyrrhenian or Corsican red deer (Cervus elaphus corsicanus)? Our results showed signs of a founder effect for the red deer on Corsica in that these deer showed differentiation from the Sardinian population as measured by F_ST values, assignment tests (with and without a priori definition of populations) and individual-based dendrograms. Genetic variability, however, did not differ significantly between the two populations. With respect to the phylogeography of C. e. corsicanus we found that both deer from North-Africa and Mesola on the Italian mainland were genetically close to the Corsican red deer, but phylogenetic trees based on genetic distances were only poorly supported statistically. Among all populations studied the Mesola red deer showed the lowest distance values from Corsican red deer and yielded allele frequencies that were more similar to those of C. e. corsicanus than were those of North-African red deer. These results are in line with recent palaeontological and archaeozoological findings which suggest that the Corsican red deer is derived from small Italian red deer introduced from the mainland to Sardinia and Corsica during the Late Neolithic and just before the beginning of Classical Antiquity, respectively. They also suggest a possible recent introduction of Tyrrhenian red deer to North-Africa (rather than the other way around), thus accounting for the close genetic relationship (especially based on mitochondrial DNA) that has repeatedly been found between C. e. corsicanus and C. e. barbarus.     

The tyrosine <Emphasis Type="Italic">O</Emphasis>-prenyltransferase SirD catalyzes <Emphasis Type="Italic">O</Emphasis>-, <Emphasis Type="Italic">N</Emphasis>-, and <Emphasis Type="Italic">C</Emphasis>-prenylations

Recently, the prenyltransferase SirD was found to be responsible for the O-prenylation of tyrosine in the biosynthesis of sirodesmin PL in Leptosphaeria maculans. In this study, the behavior of SirD towards phenylalanine/tyrosine and tryptophan derivatives was investigated. Product formation has been observed with 12 of 19 phenylalanine/tyrosine derivatives. It was shown that the alanine structure attached to the benzene ring and an electron donor, e.g., OH or NH₂, at its para-position are essential for the enzyme activity. Modifications were possible both at the side chain and the benzene ring. Enzyme products from seven phenylalanine/tyrosine derivatives were isolated and characterized by MS and NMR analyses including HSQC and HMBC and proven to be O- or N-prenylated derivatives at position C4 of the benzene rings. K _M values of six selected derivatives were found in the range of 0.10–0.68 mM. Catalytic efficiencies (K _cat/K _M ) were determined in the range of 430–1,110 s⁻¹·M⁻¹ with l-tyrosine as the best substrate. In addition, 7 of 14 tested tryptophan analogs were also accepted by SirD and converted to C7-prenylated derivatives, which was confirmed by comparison with products obtained from enzyme assays using a 7-dimethylallyltryptophan synthase 7-DMATS from Aspergillus fumigatus.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">tumefaciens</Emphasis>-mediated transformation of callus cells of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Crataegus</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">aronia</Emphasis>

A genetic transformation system has been developed for callus cells of Crataegus aronia using Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Callus culture was established from internodal stem segments incubated on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 5 mg l⁻¹ Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and 0.5 mg l⁻¹ 6-benzyladenine (BA). In order to optimize the callus culture system with respect to callus growth and coloration, different types and concentrations of plant growth regulators were tested. Results indicated that the best average fresh weight of red colored callus was obtained on MS medium supplemented with 2 mg l⁻¹ 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 1.5 mg l⁻¹ kinetin (Kin) (callus maintenance medium). Callus cells were co-cultivated with Agrobacterium harboring the binary plasmid pCAMBIA1302 carrying the mgfp5 and hygromycin phosphotransferase (hptII) genes conferring green fluorescent protein (GFP) activity and hygromycin resistance, respectively. Putative transgenic calli were obtained 4 weeks after incubation of the co-cultivated explants onto maintenance medium supplemented with 50 mg l⁻¹ hygromycin. Molecular analysis confirmed the integration of the transgenes in transformed callus. To our knowledge, this is the first time to report an Agrobacterium-mediated transformation system in Crataegus aronia.     

A new methanol assimilating yeast, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ogataea</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">parapolymorpha</Emphasis>, the ascosporic state of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candida</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">parapolymorpha</Emphasis>

Ogataea parapolymorpha sp. n. (NRRL YB-1982, CBS 12304, type strain), the ascosporic state of Candida parapolymorpha, is described. The species appears homothallic, assimilates methanol as is typical of most Ogataea species and forms hat-shaped ascospores in asci that become deliquescent. O. parapolymorpha is closely related to Ogataea angusta and Ogataea polymorpha. The three species can be resolved from gene sequence analyses but are unresolved from fermentation and growth reactions that are typically used for yeast identification. On the basis of multiple isolates, O. angusta is known only from California, USA, in association with Drosophila and Aulacigaster flies, O. parapolymorpha is predominantly associated with insect frass from trees in the eastern USA but O. polymorpha has been isolated from various substrates in the USA, Brazil, Spain and Costa Rica.     

Study of tauopathies by comparing <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila</Emphasis> and human <Emphasis Type="Italic">tau</Emphasis> in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila</Emphasis>

The microtubule-binding protein tau has been investigated for its contribution to various neurodegenerative disorders. However, the findings from transgenic studies, using the same tau transgene, vary widely among different laboratories. Here, we have investigated the potential mechanisms underlying tauopathies by comparing Drosophila (d-tau) and human (h-tau) tau in a Drosophila model. Overexpression of a single copy of either tau isoform in the retina results in a similar rough eye phenotype. However, co-expression of Par-1 with d-tau leads to lethality, whereas co-expression of Par-1 with h-tau has little effect on the rough eye phenotype. We have found analogous results by comparing larval proteomes. Through genetic screening and proteomic analysis, we have identified some important potential modifiers and tau-associated proteins. These results suggest that the two tau genes differ significantly. This comparison between species-specific isoforms may help to clarify whether the homologous tau genes are conserved. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. This study was supported by the National Science Foundation of China (30270341; 30630028), the Multidisciplinary Program (Brain and Mind) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Major State Basic Research Program (“973 program”; G2000077800; G2006CB806600; 2006CB911003), the Precedent Project of Important Intersectional Disciplines in the Knowledge Innovation Engineering of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (KJCX1-09-03).     

New combinations and typifications in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bistorta</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Persicaria</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polygonum,</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rumex</Emphasis> (Polygonaceae)

New combinations are proposed in anticipation of the Polygonaceae treatment in the forthcoming volume of Intermountain Flora: Polygonum kelloggii var. esotericum, P. kelloggii var. watsonii , Rumex densiflorus var. pycnanthus , R. salicifolius var. utahensis, and R. occidentalis var. tomentellus. Typifications are proposed to facilitate ongoing studies in Polygonaceae and to maintain current usage.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium</Emphasis>-<Emphasis Type="Italic">tumefaciens</Emphasis>-mediated transformation of<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Helminthosporium turcicum</Emphasis>, the maize leaf-blight fungus

Agrobacterium tumefaciens has the ability to transfer its T-DNA to plants, yeast, filamentous fungi, and human cells and integrate it into their genome. Conidia of the maize pathogen Helminthosporium turcicum were transformed to hygromycin B resistance by a Agrobacterium-tumefaciens-mediated transformation system using a binary plasmid vector containing the hygromycin B phosphotransferase (hph) and the enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) genes controlled by the gpd promoter from Agaricus bisporus and the CaMV 35S terminator. Agrobacterium-tumefaciens-mediated transformation yielded stable transformants capable of growing on increased concentrations of hygromycin B. The presence of hph in the transformants was confirmed by PCR, and integration of the T-DNA at random sites in the genome was demonstrated by Southern blot analysis. Agrobacterium-tumefaciens-mediated transformation of Helminthosporium turcicum provides an opportunity for advancing studies of the molecular genetics of the fungus and of the molecular basis of its pathogenicity on maize.