Effects of nutrition on seasonal changes in testosterone levels in young male reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus)

Food restriction during autumn in male reindeer calves decreased peak testosterone levels at 4-6 months, and also at 16-17 months of age. Peak testosterone levels at the age of 16-17 months were significantly correlated to body weight at 6 months but not to body weight at 16 months of age. There were small secondary testosterone peaks (1-3 ng/ml) in March or April in 11 of 16 animals. Testosterone levels started to increase before summer solstice in 50% of the yearlings.     

Rumen microbial diversity in Svalbard reindeer, with particular emphasis on methanogenic archaea

Ruminal methanogens, bacteria and ciliate protozoa of Svalbard reindeer grazing natural pastures in October (late fall) and April (late winter) were investigated using molecular-based approaches. The appetite of the Svalbard reindeer peaks in August (summer) and is at its lowest in March (winter). Microbial numbers, quantified by real-time PCR, did not change significantly between October and April, when food intakes are at similar levels, although the numbers of methanogens tended to be higher in October ( P =0.074), and ciliate numbers tended to be higher in April ( P= 0.055). Similarly, no change was detected in the bacterial and protozoal population composition by rRNA gene-based denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis. Dominant methanogens were identified using a 16S rRNA gene library (97 clones) prepared from pooled PCR products from reindeer on October pasture ( n =5). Eleven of the 22 distinct operational taxonomic units (OTUs) generated exhibited a high degree of sequence similarity to methanogens affiliated with Methanobacteriales (eight OTUs), Methanomicrobiales (one OTU) and Methanosarcinales (two OTUs). The remaining 11 OTUs (53% of the clones) were associated with a cluster of uncultivated ruminal archaea. This study has provided important insights into the rumen microbiome of a high-arctic herbivorous animal living under harsh nutritional conditions, and evidence suggesting that host type affects the population size of ruminal methanogens.     

Identification of a haemomycoplasma species in anemic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)

During an 18-mo period (May 2002-November 2003), 10 animals in a herd of 19 reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) at the National Animal Disease Center (NADC) experienced episodes of anemia. Affected animals had histories of weight loss, unthriftiness, occasionally edema of dependent parts and moderate anemia characterized by microcytosis or macrocytosis, hypochromasia, schistocytosis, keratocytosis, acanthocytosis, and dacryocytosis. Numerous basophilic punctate to ring-shaped bodies, measuring less than 1.0 microm, were found on the surface of red blood cells and were often observed encircling the outer margins of the cells. Based on cytologic findings, DNA preparations from selected affected animals in the NADC herd and one animal from a private herd experiencing similar episodes of anemia were assayed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the presence of hemotropic bacteria using primers targeting the 16S rRNA genes of Mycoplasma (Eperythrozoon) suis, Mycoplasma (Haemobartonella) haemofelis, Anaplasma marginale, Anaplasma spp., and Ehrlichia spp. Amplification products were detected from four of the affected animals using primers specific for the 16S rRNA gene of M. haemofelis and Mycoplasma haemocanis. Product from one of the animals was sequenced and internal primers were designed from the resulting sequence to perform a nested PCR assay. Samples from 10 reindeer were positive using the nested PCR reaction and products from seven animals were sequenced; BLAST searches and phylogenetic analysis were performed on the resulting sequences. Sequence data from six animals revealed homology to an organism most closely related to Mycoplasma ovis, Mycoplasma wenyonii, and Mycoplasma haemolamae; sequence from a single animal was most closely related to M. haemofelis and M. haemocanis. This represents the first identification of a haemomycoplasma species in reindeer. Although several animals were also infected with abomasal nematodes, the presence of this newly described haemomycoplasma may have contributed to the anemic syndrome.     

Population trends,distribution and conservation status of semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) in China

The reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) is listed as a species of “least concern” on the Red List of Threatened Species of the World Conservation Union (IUCN). It is distributed in the northern part of China and semi-domesticated in the region. Here we present a comparison of the historical and current distribution and numbers of reindeer in China, as well as an assessment of the factors limiting population growth. Based on this information we explore potential protective measures for reindeer in China.The reindeer has been herded extensively by the Ewenki people, the only people to do so in China. Reindeer in China originated from the Wenduosenlin tundra highlands of Siberia. Capable of migrating more than 3000 km/year, the reindeer moved from the highlands to the Weitimu river during the 16th century and on to the Northeast area of China in 1654. Since 1957, 600 reindeer have settled in Qiqian in Inner Mongolia, and from 1965 more than 900 reindeer migrated from there to Mangui. In response to frequent flooding and a fluctuating reindeer population in the Mangui region, in 2003 the Ewenki people and more than 260 reindeer translocated from there to Aoluguya.Currently, eight meta-populations of reindeer comprising 773 individuals inhabit in the Arctic region of China. The reindeer population peaked in the 1970s at more than 1080 animals, but declined markedly from 1998 onwards mainly as a result of inbreeding, poaching, predation and tourism. The Chinese government's interest in wildlife protection is increasing, as evidenced by the introduction of wildlife protection laws and regulations, the importation of new reindeer varieties from Russia and the joining of the Association of World Reindeer Herders. However, natural reserves and national parks have still not been established within the reindeer's range in China to conserve this fragile population.     

The Disappearance Rate in Reindeer of Famphur an Organophosphorus Parasiticide

The present investigations were carried out in order to study the disappearance rate in reindeer of famphur (0,O-dimethyl-O,p-(NtN-di-methylsulphamoyl) phenyl phosphorothioate), a promising systemic parasiticide for the control of reindeer warble and nostril flies. The compound was administered intramuscularly to reindeer as a single dose (in the form of the preparation Warbcx). At a dose of 20 mg/kg body weight (2 animals) famphur caused inhibition of plasma and erythrocyte cholinesterase activities by about 50 %. The plasma esterase activity fell off rapidly, within 24 hrs., and returned to normal within 3 weeks, whereas the erythrocyte esterase activity decreased gradually and remained low for at least 4 weeks after dosing. Peak plasma levels of fampliiir, varying between 1 and 16 p.p.m., were attained within 5–33 hrs., after a dose of 30 mg famphur per kg body weight (7 reindeer). The plasma levels declined to below 0.02 p.p.m. in 72–96 hrs. Famoxon, the oxygen analogue of famphur, was observed for 1–2 days in plasma at low levels, amounting to about 10 % of the corresponding famphur levels. In erythrocytes practically no residues were found of either compound. Tissue residue levels were low — except at the injection site. In a series of animals given a dose of 30 mg/kg body weight and killed at varying times after treatment famphur or famoxon were detectable in liver for 4.5 days and in kidney and skeletal muscle remote from the injection site for 12 days. In muscle tissue from the injection site highly variable residue levels were observed, indicating absorption from the intramuscular depot to be erratic. The experimental results suggest that no appreciable consumer hazard would arise from a proposed single-dose intramuscular treatment of reindeer with famphur at a dosage not exceeding 30 mg/kg body weight, provided a minimum interval of 3 weeks is maintained between treatment and slaughter and the muscle tissue around the injection site is discarded.     

Progesterone in Pregnant and Non-Pregnant Reindeer

Peripheral blood plasma levels of progesterone were studied in pregnant and non-pregnant reindeer. Marked differences in progesterone levels were found between pregnant and non-pregnant animals indicating that the determination of progesterone could be used as a pregnancy diagnosis test in reindeer.     

Age-related changes in the testicular and antler cycles of reindeer, Rangifer tarandus

A total of 111 male reindeer of various ages was shot in all months of the year to study the relationship between the seasonal changes in testicular activity and the antler cycle. From the changes in testis weight, seminiferous tubular tissue area and plasma testosterone values and the occurrence of spermatogenesis, it is concluded that calves attain physiological puberty in their first year, during which they also complete an antler cycle. The amplitude of the cyclical change in testis weight and plasma testosterone values increases with age and can be correlated with the earlier onset of events in the spermatogenic and antler cycles of older animals. The duration of the spermatogenic and testosterone cycles of reindeer is short, and is inversely related to the long period spent without antlers. It is suggested that testosterone strongly influences the antler cycle of reindeer males.     

Why don't Svalbard reindeer migrate?

Reindeer and caribou are best known as migratory, seasonally nomadic animals; many continental populations, for example, travel between distinct summer and winter ranges which may lie hundreds of km apart. Much less is known about the movements of animals belonging to island populations. This paper describes seasonal and annual movements of wild reindeer Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus on the high arctic archipelago of Svalbard, based on observations of nine animals captured and individually marked in Adventdalen, Spitsbergen, between 1977 and 1982. Four ear-tagged reindeer (one male and three females) were followed extensively for between four and seven years. Five radio-collared females were followed intensively for seven months in 1982. Svalbard reindeer seem neither to undertake long migrations nor to be nomadic within seasons like mountain reindeer or barren-ground caribou. They appear instead to use small, traditional, seasonal home ranges more, for example, like red deer or wild sheep. This atypical behaviour is discussed in relation to the dispersion of reindeers' resources in Svalbard.     

Mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite DNA variation in domestic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) and relationships with wild caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti, Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus, and Rangifer tarandus caribou)

Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Alaska are semidomestic livestock descended from 1280 animals introduced from Siberia, Russia, approximately 100 years ago. Genetic variation at 18 microsatellite DNA loci and the cytochrome b gene of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was quantified in reindeer from Alaska, Siberia (Russia), and Scandinavia and compared with wild North American caribou. Mean sequence divergence among 15 mtDNA haplotypes in reindeer was 0.007 substitutions per nucleotide site, and reindeer mtDNA is polyphyletic with caribou mtDNA. Microsatellite allele and mtDNA haplotype frequencies are similar between Alaskan and Russian reindeer and differentiated between these and Scandinavian reindeer. The frequencies of microsatellite alleles and mtDNA haplotypes are different in reindeer and wild caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti, Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus, and Rangifer tarandus caribou). Alaskan reindeer have maintained a genetic variation comparable to that in Russia and differentiated from that of wild caribou, >100 years after their introduction to Alaska.     

Ovarian function and pregnancy rates in reindeer calves (Rangifer tarandus ) in Southern Norway

Reindeer calves (n = 632) were slaughtered in November/December (n = 476) or in January (n = 156). Dressed weights and amount of perirenal fat were recorded, and the reproductive organs were collected. A separate group of 130 reindeer calves were weighed at 7 months of age and were followed up with repeated weighings and pregnancy examinations up to 21 months. The onset of puberty and the pregnancy rate were significantly influenced by body weight and the amount of perirenal fat. Approximately 60 g of perirenal fat and 22 kg dressed weight were found at the lower limits for pregnancy. A total of 222 (35%) animals had reached puberty and 126 (20%) were pregnant when examined after slaughter. Animals which conceived during their first autumn showed only a moderate weight gain the following year, and the calf mortality rate in these animals was 47.4%. It was concluded that calf pregnancies are common among the reindeer of Southern Norway and that measures need to be taken to prevent them.     

Rumen function in red deer, hill sheep and reindeer in the scottish highlands.

Red deer, sheep and reindeer grazing on their normal hill ranges were examined at intervals over a period of four years. Samples from the digestive tract were taken at different seasons and processed in the field. The Red deer and reindeer were killed before samples were taken; rumen samples from the sheep were taken by stomach tube, but a number of animals were also killed at different seasons to correlate stomach tube and whole rumen samples. The animals sampled were representative of the general condition of the herds. Examinations were made for parasites and any pathological conditions. In most instances parasitic infections were slight. Apparent seasonal changes were found in the compositions of the diets. The Red deer and sheep ate principally heather and grass, the proportion of heather increasing in the winter. The reindeer ate mainly grass in the summer, with lichens and grass forming the winter diet, and these animals seemed to have a higher nutritional status in the winter than did the other two species. The weights of the animals and of their rumen contents, the concentrations of rumen ammonia and volatile fatty acid, and the rates at which different dietary components were fermented are recorded. Rumen fermentation was low in winter and the diets were generally inadequate for the animals. A lack of nitrogen seemed to be a major factor. Some data on caecal contents are also given.     

Escaping parasitism in the selfish herd: age, size and density-dependent warble fly infestation in reindeer

It has been suggested that animals may escape attack from mobile parasites by aggregating in selfish herds. A selfish herd disperses the risk of being attacked among its members and the per individual risk of parasite infection should therefore decrease with increasing animal density through the encounter–dilution effect. Moreover, in a selfish herd, dominant and agile animals should occupy the best positions and thereby receive fewer attacks compared to lower ranked animals at the periphery. We tested these predictions on reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus tarandus ) parasitized by warble flies ( Hypoderma tarandi ). Warble flies oviposit their eggs on reindeer during summer and induce strong anti-parasitic behavioural responses in the herds. In this period, reindeer are sexually segregated; females and calves form large and dense herds while males are more solitary. After hatching, the warble fly larvae migrate under the skin of their host where they encyst. In the present study encysted larvae were counted on newly slaughtered hides of male calves and 1.5 year old males from 18 different reindeer herds in Finnmark, northern Norway with large contrasts in reindeer density. In reindeer, body mass is correlated with fitness and social status and we hypothesized that individual carcass mass reflected the animal's ability to occupy the best positions within the herd. Larval abundance was higher among the 1.5 year old males than among the calves. For calves we found in accordance with the selfish herd hypothesis a negative relationship between larval abundance and animal density and between larval abundance and body mass. These relationships were absent for the 1.5 year old males. We suggest that these differences were due to different grouping behaviour where calves and females, but not males, aggregated in selfish herds where they escaped parasitism.     

Helicobacter suis KB1 derived from pig gastric lymphoid follicles induces the formation of gastric lymphoid follicles in mice through the activation of B cells and CD4 positive cells

"Helicobacter heilmannii" ("H. heilmannii"), which belongs to the genus Helicobacter, is a group of bacterial species that display a long spiral-shaped morphology. Recent studies have demonstrated that "H. heilmannii" type 1 is actually H. suis, which mainly colonizes the stomachs of various animals and humans. However, the influence of H. suis on gastric diseases remains to be fully elucidated. In this report, we revealed the relationship between natural H. suis infection and follicular gastritis in the pig stomachs. From sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA, urease A, and urease B genes, the presence of H. suis was confirmed in pig gastric lymphoid follicles, and this bacterium was named H. suis KB1. In addition, H. suis KB1 was inoculated into C57BL/6J mice, and the following mouse model of the pathogenesis of follicular gastritis by H. suis infection was established: H. suis KB1 colonizes the mouse stomach, and moreover, induces the development of lymphoid follicles and acquired immune responses characterized by the activation of B cells and CD4 positive cells. These results may lead to better understanding of the relationship between H. suis and gastric diseases, especially follicular gastritis; and furthermore, our findings emphasize the zoonotic aspects of animal-human infection by H. suis.     

Ruminal microbial digestion in free-living, in captive lichen-fed, and in starved reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in winter.

In free-living (FL) reindeer eating a natural mixed winter diet dominated by lichens, captive (CF) reindeer fed pure lichens ad libitum, and CF reindeer subsequently starved for 1 day (CS1 reindeer) or 4 days (CS4 reindeer), the dominant rumen anaerobic bacteria were characterized, their population densities were estimated, and ruminal pH and volatile fatty acid concentrations were determined. In the FL reindeer, the total median viable anaerobic bacterial population ranged from 18 x 10(8) to 35 x 10(8) cells per ml of rumen fluid (n = 4), compared with 26 x 10(8) to 34 x 10(8) and 0.09 x 10(8) to 0.1 x 10(8) cells per ml of rumen fluid in CF reindeer (n = 2) and CS4 reindeer (n = 2), respectively. The median bacterial population adhering to the rumen solids ranged from 260 x 10(8) to 450 x 10(8), 21 x 10(8) to 38 x 10(8), and 0.5 x 10(8) cells per g (wet weight) of rumen solids in FL, CF, and CS4 reindeer, respectively. Although there were variations in the rumen bacterial composition among the FL reindeer (n = 4), strains of Bacteroides, Fibrobacter, Streptococcus, and Clostridium dominated in the rumen fluid. Streptococcus spp. and Clostridium spp. were the dominant bacteria in the CF reindeer (n = 2), while in the CS4 reindeer (n = 2) the dominant bacteria were Fusobacterium spp., members of the family Enterobacteriaceae, and Eubacterium spp. Transmission electron micrographs of lichen particles from the rumen of one FL reindeer, one CF reindeer, and one CS4 reindeer show bacteria resembling Bacteroides spp. adhering to the lichen particles, evidently digesting the lichen hyphae from the inside.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Adaptive selection of a prion strain conformer corresponding to established North American CWD during propagation of novel emergent Norwegian strains in mice expressing elk or deer prion protein

Prions are infectious proteins causing fatal, transmissible neurodegenerative diseases of animals and humans. Replication involves template-directed refolding of host encoded prion protein, PrP^C, by its infectious conformation, PrP^Sc. Following its discovery in captive Colorado deer in 1967, uncontrollable contagious transmission of chronic wasting disease (CWD) led to an expanded geographic range in increasing numbers of free-ranging and captive North American (NA) cervids. Some five decades later, detection of PrP^Sc in free-ranging Norwegian (NO) reindeer and moose marked the first indication of CWD in Europe. To assess the properties of these emergent NO prions and compare them with NA CWD we used transgenic (Tg) and gene targeted (Gt) mice expressing PrP with glutamine (Q) or glutamate (E) at residue 226, a variation in wild type cervid PrP which influences prion strain selection in NA deer and elk. Transmissions of NO moose and reindeer prions to Tg and Gt mice recapitulated the characteristic features of CWD in natural hosts, revealing novel prion strains with disease kinetics, neuropathological profiles, and capacities to infect lymphoid tissues and cultured cells that were distinct from those causing NA CWD. In support of strain variation, PrP^Sc conformers comprising emergent NO moose and reindeer CWD were subject to selective effects imposed by variation at residue 226 that were different from those controlling established NA CWD. Transmission of particular NO moose CWD prions in mice expressing E at 226 resulted in selection of a kinetically optimized conformer, subsequent transmission of which revealed properties consistent with NA CWD. These findings illustrate the potential for adaptive selection of strain conformers with improved fitness during propagation of unstable NO prions. Their potential for contagious transmission has implications for risk analyses and management of emergent European CWD. Finally, we found that Gt mice expressing physiologically controlled PrP levels recapitulated the lymphotropic properties of naturally occurring CWD strains resulting in improved susceptibilities to emergent NO reindeer prions compared with over-expressing Tg counterparts. These findings underscore the refined advantages of Gt models for exploring the mechanisms and impacts of strain selection in peripheral compartments during natural prion transmission.     

Observations on circulatory adjustment in newborn reindeer and elk

Haemodynamics of two reindeer (18 h and 4 days old) and one elk (1 week old) calves were studied by catheterization and angiography. Early closure of foetal shunts, high cardiac output and large ejection fractions were observed in all three animals. Pulmonary arterial blood pressure decreased to the full-grown level during the first days of life in the reindeer. Electrocardiography showed cranial-orientated QRS vector in both species. The cardiovascular system of the Cervidae is well developed at birth and adapts rapidly during the neonatal period.     

Immunomodulatory effects of Streptococcus suis capsule type on human dendritic cell responses, phagocytosis and intracellular survival

Streptococcus suis is a major porcine pathogen of significant commercial importance worldwide and an emerging zoonotic pathogen of humans. Given the important sentinel role of mucosal dendritic cells and their importance in induction of T cell responses we investigated the effect of different S. suis serotype strains and an isogenic capsule mutant of serotype 2 on the maturation, activation and expression of IL-10, IL-12p70 and TNF-α in human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Additionally, we compared phagocytosis levels and bacterial survival after internalization. The capsule of serotype 2, the most common serotype associated with infection in humans and pigs, was highly anti-phagocytic and modulated the IL-10/IL-12 and IL-10/TNF-α cytokine production in favor of a more anti-inflammatory profile compared to other serotypes. This may have consequences for the induction of effective immunity to S. suis serotype 2 in humans. A shielding effect of the capsule on innate Toll-like receptor signaling was also demonstrated. Furthermore, we showed that 24 h after phagocytosis, significant numbers of viable intracellular S. suis were still present intracellularly. This may contribute to the dissemination of S. suis in the body.     

Serum insulin,glucose and lactate concentrations during 18-h fast in female reindeer

We investigated whether secretion of insulin occurred in the absence of feeding in a ruminant. Serum insulin, glucose and lactate concentrations were measured in three adult non-pregnant reindeer at hourly intervals during an 18-h fast (17:30-11:30 h) in October. Mean serum insulin concentration was 39+/-3 micro/ml (range 2-100). The insulin profile of two animals was characterized by a nocturnal rise and an early morning trough, followed by a mid-morning rise. Within the larger peaks, short-term oscillations occurred at 2-3-h intervals. Serum glucose concentrations significantly increased during the fast and exceeded feeding values by 31-45% at 18 h post feeding. Serum lactate concentrations declined significantly in all three animals. Residuals for serum glucose concentrations were significantly negatively correlated to residuals of serum lactate in two animals, but not the third. Serum glucose and lactate concentrations were not related to serum insulin. In conclusion, insulin secretion in reindeer shows a 2-3-h periodicity in the absence of feeding. The periodicity is of similar duration as the inter-meal interval for pen-fed reindeer during winter (2.5 h). Although not necessarily causal, the results are consistent with a hypothesized role for insulin in meal initiation.     

Taxonomic Notes on the Swedish Domestic Reindeer, Genus Rangifer

In order to study the taxonomic relationship between domestic mountain and forest reindeer in Sweden nine skull characters on 126 and 62 animals, respectively, were measured and analysed. In addition antler width and shape of antler beam in cross-section were also measured. The differences indicate that the two groups of domestic reindeer are not entirely identical, although the differences are clearly not as plain as has been claimed. Comparing these results with earlier results it also appears that domestic forest reindeer are more in accordance with Rangifer tarandus tarandus than with R. t. jennicus , thus supporting the theory that possible influence of the latter subspecies on domestic reindeer has been considerably reduced as a result of long and intense cross breeding between the two groups of domestic reindeer.     

Experimental oral transmission of chronic wasting disease to reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus)

Chronic wasting disease (CWD), a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy of cervids, remains prevalent in North American elk, white-tailed deer and mule deer. A natural case of CWD in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) has not been reported despite potential habitat overlap with CWD-infected deer or elk herds. This study investigates the experimental transmission of CWD from elk or white-tailed deer to reindeer by the oral route of inoculation. Ante-mortem testing of the three reindeer exposed to CWD from white-tailed deer identified the accumulation of pathological PrP (PrP(CWD)) in the recto-anal mucosa associated lymphoid tissue (RAMALT) of two reindeer at 13.4 months post-inoculation. Terminal CWD occurred in the two RAMALT-positive reindeer at 18.5 and 20 months post-inoculation while one other reindeer in the white-tailed deer CWD inoculum group and none of the 3 reindeer exposed to elk CWD developed disease. Tissue distribution analysis of PrP(CWD) in CWD-affected reindeer revealed widespread deposition in central and peripheral nervous systems, lymphoreticular tissues, the gastrointestinal tract, neuroendocrine tissues and cardiac muscle. Analysis of prion protein gene (PRNP) sequences in the 6 reindeer identified polymorphisms at residues 2 (V/M), 129 (G/S), 138 (S/N) and 169 (V/M). These findings demonstrate that (i) a sub-population of reindeer are susceptible to CWD by oral inoculation implicating the potential for transmission to other Rangifer species, and (ii) certain reindeer PRNP polymorphisms may be protective against CWD infection.