炭疽杆菌检测方法的研究现状与展望

炭疽是严重威胁人类健康的烈性传染病,其病原体为炭疽芽孢杆菌。炭疽芽孢杆菌在我国公布的《人间传染的病原微生物名录》中被列为第二类病原微生物(高致病性病原微生物),其芽孢可作为生物战剂和生物恐怖的原材料,因此,发展灵敏、高效的炭疽杆菌检测方法十分重要和紧迫。按检测的靶标分类,针对炭疽杆菌的检测方法主要有四大类:针对炭疽杆菌芽孢的检测方法,针对细菌繁殖体的检测方法,针对炭疽杆菌基因的检测方法和针对炭疽毒素蛋白的检测方法。其中,针对炭疽杆菌芽孢和细菌繁殖体的检测已经有比较成熟的方法,但其在特异性以及临床的实用性方面难以令人满意;针对炭疽杆菌基因的检测技术在特异性和灵敏度上有较大的提高,但在临床诊断等方面还有欠缺;而针对炭疽毒素蛋白的检测技术的发展,使得直接对炭疽杆菌的主要致病因子的检测成为可能,这对于临床诊断以及流行病学研究具有重要意义。本文对当前炭疽杆菌检测方法的最新进展做了简要的归纳,关注了不同检测方法的适用范围和检测能力,并展望了相关领域的发展趋势,希望能为从事炭疽杆菌检测方法研究的同行提供参考和帮助。     

炭疽杆菌S层的研究进展

S层是广泛存在于古细菌和真细菌细胞壁最外层的结构独特、功能特殊的成分,对它的研究具有重要的意义。炭疽杆菌是引起人畜炭疽病的病原体,对其S层的研究将为深入认识该菌的生理特性及致病机制等提供坚实的基础。就近年来对炭疽杆菌S层的结构、功能特点及应用前景等方面的研究进展做一简要的综述。     

炭疽杆菌芽孢外壁胶原样蛋白(BclA)的多态性分析

炭疽杆菌芽孢外壁胶原样蛋白（BclA）是芽孢外壁发状菌丝的主要结构成分,也是芽孢的主要免疫原。从国内分离的3株炭疽杆菌中克隆出BclA基因并进行了序列分析,结果发现有2株（A16R和40048）的BclA与国外报道菌株长度不同,分别含有388个和322个氨基酸,72个和50个GXX三氨基酸重复序列,5个和3个含21个氨基酸的（GPT）5 GDTGTT重复序列（BclA重复）。另一株40022的BclA与国外报道的53169株完全一敛,含有370个氨基酸,66个GXX重复,5个BclA重复。对我国炭疽杆菌BclA蛋白多态性的分析为进行炭疽杆菌的基因分型以及研究炭疽芽孢的免疫原性和致病机理打下基础。     

PlcR在炭疽芽胞杆菌A16R中的功能研究

炭疽芽胞杆菌(Bacillus anthracis)、蜡样芽胞杆菌(B. cereus)和苏云金芽胞杆菌(B. thuringiensis)均属于蜡样芽胞杆菌群,在遗传学上有很高的相似性。PlcR (Phospholipase C regulator)在蜡样芽胞杆菌中是十分重要的调控因子,但plcR基因在炭疽芽胞杆菌中发生一个无义突变导致在炭疽芽胞杆菌中产生一个截短PlcR蛋白。为了研究plcR基因对炭疽芽胞杆菌功能的影响,文章以蜡样芽胞杆菌CMCC6330基因组为模板,构建重组表达质粒pBE2A-plcR后导入炭疽芽胞杆菌疫苗株A16R中获得重组菌株,对其进行表型分析。结果显示,炭疽芽胞杆菌重组菌株的溶血活性基本没有恢复,但恢复了部分神经鞘磷脂酶活性,表明将蜡样芽胞杆菌的plcR基因导入炭疽芽胞杆菌后,可以直接激活神经鞘磷脂酶活性。     

炭疽芽孢杆菌A16R株eag基因缺失突变株构建

【目的】构建炭疽芽孢杆菌A16R株eag基因缺失突变株, 为研究eag基因的功能奠定了基础。【方法】本研究以我国人用炭疽杆菌活疫苗A16R株中eag基因为目的缺失基因,根据炭疽芽孢杆菌Ames株基因组序列,利用软件设计了扩增上下游同源臂以及抗性基因引物,构建了重组质粒,将该重组质粒电击转入炭疽杆菌A16R感受态细胞中,利用同源重组原理筛选到炭疽杆菌A16R株eag基因缺失突变株。在分子水平及蛋白质组学方面对基因缺失突变株进行验证。【结果】成功构建了重组质粒,经同源重组后获得eag基因缺失突变株。PCR鉴定表明目的基因已经丢失;SDS PAGE表明野生株与突变株在93 KDa处有差异蛋白条带,经质谱鉴定分析该条带为目的基因所表达的EA1蛋白;双向电泳结果显示突变株与野生株比较明显缺失3个蛋白点,经质谱分析后确定这3个点都是EA1蛋白。【结论】成功获得炭疽芽孢杆菌A16R株eag基因缺失突变株,为深入研究eag基因的功能奠定了基础,同时也为炭疽芽孢杆菌重要基因功能的研究建立了一个良好的技术平台。     

蜡样杆菌是否产生炭疽毒素

据先期PNAS在线版报道,在一个幸存于吸入型炭疽肺炎综合症患体内分离到的蜡样杆菌中发现了编码炭疽毒素的质粒,这是首次在炭疽杆菌以外的自然微生物中发现完整炭疽质粒。     

炭疽杆菌的致病因子与炭疽的防治

炭疽为一种人、兽共患急性传染病,部分国家将炭疽杆菌作为生物威胁因子进行研究和生产。该菌毒性与质粒PXOl、PXO2有关,PXOl产物包括水肿因子、保护性抗原和致死因子。PXO2是另一编码致病因子,产物荚膜抑制细胞的吞噬,有助病菌繁殖、扩散和建立感染。抗生素与抗炭疽血清联合应用,突变保护性抗原、水肿因子、致死因子联合注射,Al(OH)3佐剂PA疫苗,减毒口服菌苗,PA基因重组活菌苗均可抵抗炭疽杆菌致死性攻击。     

炭疽疫苗及治疗药物筛选和评价模型研究进展

炭疽疫苗和治疗药物的研究是近年来国际上研究热点之一,由于对它们的有效性研究不能在人体进行,因此实验模型的选择就特别重要.目前常用的细胞模型主要包括CHO细胞和J774A.1细胞.动物模型种类较多,包括小鼠、大鼠、豚鼠、兔和猴等都被作为炭疽的动物模型加以研究.由于模型选择的差异,实验结果常出现较大差异,甚至得到相反的结果.回顾了以往在细胞和动物模型上进行的炭疽实验,分析选择炭疽研究模型的原则和依据.同时,为探讨不同模型之间产生实验结果差异的原因,简要介绍了炭疽杆菌的致病机理,以及炭疽疫苗和治疗药物的研究进展.     

炭疽芽胞杆菌及炭疽疾病概述

美国炭疽恐怖事件引起了全球的广泛关注,曾经被忽略的炭疽再度成为人们关注的焦点并加剧_了人们对它的恐惧感,为认识这种细菌的毒力和致病机制,本文就炭疽芽胞杆菌的流行病学、微生物学、发病机制、临床表现及其治疗预防并结合其作为生物武器的特点等问题予以综述。     

一种KBMA炭疽疫苗候选株的研制

炭疽病是由炭疽芽胞杆菌Bacillus anthracis引起的一种人畜共患传染病,严重影响着人类的健康。近年来在细菌疫苗的研究中发现一种特殊的现象：细菌被杀死后,体内的代谢活性却仍然维持 (Killed but metabolically active,KBMA)。此发现为炭疽新型疫苗候选株的研制提供了新思路。先通过同源重组的方法,利用pMAD质粒和Cre-loxP重组酶系统完成对缺失两个毒性大质粒的炭疽芽胞杆菌减毒株AP422的uvrAB基因的敲除,得到AP422△uvrAB菌株,然后通过光化学处理 (包括长波紫外光的照射和8-甲氧基补骨脂素处理),使炭疽芽胞杆菌AP422△uvrAB失去繁殖能力。利用四氮唑化合物MTS检测其代谢活性,表明光化学处理杀死后的炭疽芽胞杆菌AP422△uvrAB在至少4 h内维持一个很高的代谢活性水平,即具备典型的KBMA特性。炭疽杆菌AP422 △uvrAB的KBMA菌株的成功研制为我们提供了一种新型炭疽疫苗候选株。     

Anthrax toxins and the host: a story of intimacy

Although the dramatic events of the year 2001 have revitalized the interest in anthrax, research on Bacillus anthracis and its major virulence factors is one of the oldest theme in microbiology and started with the early works of Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur. The anthrax toxins are central to anthrax pathogenesis. They were discovered in the mid-1950s and since then there has been an enormous amount of work to elucidate both the molecular and physiopathological details of their mode of action. In this review, after a brief introduction of B. anthracis, we will focus on the latest findings that concern two aspects of anthrax toxin research: the environmental signals and the molecular mechanisms that regulate toxin synthesis, and the mechanisms of intoxication. We hope to convince the reader that the anthrax toxins are highly specialized determinants of B. anthracis pathogenicity: their synthesis is integrated within a global virulence programme and they target key eukaryotic cell proteins. We conclude with a consideration of the therapeutic perspectives arising from our current knowledge of how the toxins work.     

Where and how do anthrax toxins exit endosomes to intoxicate host cells?

The role of Bacillus anthracis virulence factors in its pathogenesis has been subjected to intense investigation with the aim of finding novel preventive and therapeutic protocols. Toxins that are endocytosed and act in the cytosol of host cells have a central role in B. anthracis infection. Understanding of anthrax toxin cell entry has increased during the past few years and a composite picture is emerging. Nevertheless, unanswered and controversial questions remain, particularly concerning the site and mode of anthrax toxin cell entry, the role of anthrax toxin receptors in the process and the possible involvement of cytosolic chaperones, which might affect entry efficiency. Here, the current model of anthrax toxin cell entry, an alternative model and experimental approaches for clarifying unanswered questions will be discussed.     

Anthrax toxin targeting of myeloid cells through the CMG2 receptor is essential for establishment of Bacillus anthracis infections in mice

Bacillus anthracis kills through a combination of bacterial infection and toxemia. Anthrax toxin working via the CMG2 receptor mediates lethality late in infection, but its roles early in infection remain unclear. We generated myeloid-lineage specific CMG2-deficient mice to examine the roles of macrophages, neutrophils, and other myeloid cells in anthrax pathogenesis. Macrophages and neutrophils isolated from these mice were resistant to anthrax toxin. However, the myeloid-specific CMG2-deficient mice remained fully sensitive to both anthrax lethal and edema toxins, demonstrating that targeting of myeloid cells is not responsible for anthrax toxin-induced lethality. Surprisingly, the myeloid-specific CMG2-deficient mice were completely resistant to B. anthracis infection. Neutrophil depletion experiments suggest that B. anthracis relies on anthrax toxin secretion to evade the scavenging functions of neutrophils to successfully establish infection. This work demonstrates that anthrax toxin uptake through CMG2 and the resulting impairment of myeloid cells are essential to anthrax infection.     

A novel FtsZ-like protein is involved in replication of the anthrax toxin-encoding pXO1 plasmid in Bacillus anthracis

Plasmid pXO1 encodes the tripartite anthrax toxin, which is the major virulence factor of Bacillus anthracis. In spite of the important role of pXO1 in anthrax pathogenesis, very little is known about its replication and maintenance in B. anthracis. We cloned a 5-kb region of the pXO1 plasmid into an Escherichia coli vector and showed that this plasmid can replicate when introduced into B. anthracis. Mutational analysis showed that open reading frame 45 (repX) of pXO1 was required for the replication of the miniplasmid in B. anthracis. Interestingly, repX showed limited homology to bacterial FtsZ proteins that are involved in cell division. A mutation in the predicted GTP binding domain of RepX abolished its replication activity. Genes almost identical to repX are contained on several megaplasmids in members of the Bacillus cereus group, including a B. cereus strain that causes an anthrax-like disease. Our results identify a novel group of FtsZ-related initiator proteins that are required for the replication of virulence plasmids in B. anthracis and possibly in related organisms. Such replication proteins may provide novel drug targets for the elimination of plasmids encoding the anthrax toxin and other virulence factors.     

New insights into the functions of anthrax toxin

Anthrax is the disease caused by the Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Two toxins secreted by B. anthracis - lethal toxin (LT) and oedema toxin (OT) - contribute significantly to virulence. Although these toxins have been studied for half a century, recent evidence indicates that LT and OT have several roles during infection not previously ascribed to them. Research on toxin-induced effects other than cytolysis of target cells has revealed that LT and OT influence cell types previously thought to be insensitive to toxin. Multiple host factors that confer sensitivity to anthrax toxin have been identified recently, and evidence indicates that the toxins probably contribute to colonisation and invasion of the host. Additionally, the toxins are now known to cause a wide spectrum of tissue and organ pathophysiologies associated with anthrax. Taken together, these new findings indicate that anthrax-toxin-associated pathogenesis is much more complex than has been traditionally recognised.     

Key aspects of the molecular and cellular basis of inhalational anthrax

Bacillus anthracis is the etiologic agent of the disease inhalational anthrax, an acute systemic infection initiated by inhaling spores, which if not rapidly detected and treated, results in death. Decades of research have elucidated novel aspects of anthrax pathogenesis but there are many issues left unresolved.     

The alveolar macrophage: the Trojan horse of Bacillus anthracis

Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax, has a particular strategy for invading the host and crossing the alveolar barrier. B. anthracis survives within alveolar macrophages, after germination within the phagolysosome, then enters the external medium where it proliferates. Recent data have shown that edema toxin and lethal toxin are the major genetic determinants mediating the survival of germinated spores within macrophages. Here, recent advances in the analysis of B. anthracis pathogenesis are summarized and future challenges discussed.     

Molecular evolution and diversity in Bacillus anthracis as detected by amplified fragment length polymorphism markers.

Bacillus anthracis causes anthrax and represents one of the most molecularly monomorphic bacteria known. We have used AFLP (amplified fragment length polymorphism) DNA markers to analyze 78 B. anthracis isolates and six related Bacillus species for molecular variation. AFLP markers are extremely sensitive to even small sequence variation, using PCR and high-resolution electrophoresis to examine restriction fragments. Using this approach, we examined ca. 6.3% of the Bacillus genome for length mutations and ca. 0.36% for point mutations. Extensive variation was observed among taxa, and both cladistic and phenetic analyses were used to construct a phylogeny of B. anthracis and its closest relatives. This genome-wide analysis of 357 AFLP characters (polymorphic fragments) indicates that B. cereus and B. thuringiensis are the closest taxa to B. anthracis, with B. mycoides slightly more distant. B. subtilis, B. polymyxa, and B. stearothermophilus shared few AFLP markers with B. anthracis and were used as outgroups to root the analysis. In contrast to the variation among taxa, only rare AFLP marker variation was observed within B. anthracis, which may be the most genetically uniform bacterial species known. However, AFLP markers did establish the presence or absence of the pXO1 and pXO2 plasmids and detected 31 polymorphic chromosomal regions among the 79 B. anthracis isolates. Cluster analysis identified two very distinct genetic lineages among the B. anthracis isolates. The level of variation and its geographic distribution are consistent with a historically recent African origin for this pathogenic organism. Based on AFLP marker similarity, the ongoing anthrax epidemic in Canada and the northern United States is due to a single strain introduction that has remained stable over at least 30 years and a 1,000-mile distribution.     

Recent progress in the development of anthrax vaccines

Bacillus anthracis is the etiological agent of anthrax. Although anthrax is primarily an epizootic disease; humans are at risk for contracting anthrax. The potential use of B. anthracis spores as biowarfare agent has led to immense attention. Prolonged vaccination schedule of current anthrax vaccine and variable protection conferred; often leading to failure of therapy. This highlights the need for alternative anthrax countermeasures. A number of approaches are being investigated to substitute or supplement the existing anthrax vaccines. These relied on expression of Protective antigen (PA), the key protective immunogen; in bacterial or plant systems; or utilization of attenuated strains of B. anthracis for immunization. Few studies have established potential of domain IV of PA for immunization. Other targets including the spore, capsule, S-layer and anthrax toxin components have been investigated for imparting protective immunity. It has been shown that co-immunization of PA with domain I of lethal factor that binds PA resulted in higher antibody responses. Of the epitope based vaccines, the loop neutralizing determinant, in particular; elicited robust neutralizing antibody response and conferred 97% protection upon challenge. DNA vaccination resulted in varying degree of protection and seems a promising approach. Additionally, the applicability of monoclonal and therapeutic antibodies in the treatment of anthrax has also been demonstrated. The recent progress in the direction of anthrax prophylaxis has been evaluated in this review.