The feasibility of reintroducing Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) to Scotland

The feasibility of reintroducing Wild Boar Sus scrofa to Scotland was investigated using the predictions of a Geographical information System (GIS) and a Population Viability Analysis (PVA). In the first stage of this study we summarized information from published literature on the biology, habitat requirements, home range use and population densities of Wild Boar, and using a GIS we identified four suitable sites of significant size, all located in Highlands. In the second stage we used a Population Viability Analysis (RAMAS/age), parameterized with published information on survival and fecundity of European Wild Boar populations, to calculate the number of animals required in a ‘release population’ if it were to survive on average 50 years. At the two largest sites that we considered, a release population of 50 animals would be likely to produce a viable population. The study concluded that biologically, the reintroduction of the Wild Boar is possible. However, a complementary study examining both the environmental and the potential wider ecological and socio-economic impacts of Wild Boar will be required before reintroduction is seriously considered.     

Prey of the Persian Leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) in a mixed forest-steppe landscape in northeastern Iran (Mammalia: Felidae)

We carried out a dietary analysis of Persian Leopards, Panthera pardus saxicolor, in a temperate region in north-eastern Iran, where the largest population nucleus exists across the subspecies range. We investigated 113 faecal samples collected between February 2009 and March 2010 in Golestan National Park. Faecal analysis revealed that leopards predominantly preyed upon wild ungulates, with the Wild Boar, Sus scrofa, being the most important prey species in terms of frequency and biomass. Eleven different prey items were identified, 7 of which were ungulates, comprising 99% of the total food items. We also found a spatial pattern in the prey composition of leopards: cervids were predominantly found in forest landscapes, whereas Wild Sheep, Ovis orientalis, was mainly found in steppe habitats, revealing the leopards’ predation on medium-to large-sized ungulates. Livestock remains were mainly extracted from steppe samples, but the overall contribution to the leopard diet pattern (approximately 8.5% of consumed biomass) suggested that conflict with human communities, at least within the investigated core parts of the National Park, is not a major concern. The study provides the first illustration of the Persian Leopard's dietary composition in a temperate area with a relatively high diversity of available prey, and can be a baseline for future investigation and human-leopard interaction monitoring     

Prehistoric Introduction of Domestic Pigs onto the Okinawa Islands: Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence

Ancient DNAs of Sus scrofa specimens excavated from archaeological sites on the Okinawa islands were examined to clarify the genetic relationships among prehistoric Sus scrofa, modern wild boars and domestic pigs inhabiting the Ryukyu archipelago, the Japanese islands, and the Asian continent. We extracted remain DNA from 161 bone specimens excavated from 12 archaeological sites on the Okinawa islands and successfully amplified mitochondrial DNA control region fragments from 33 of 161 specimens. Pairwise difference between prehistoric and modern S. scrofa nucleotide sequences showed that haplotypes of the East Asian domestic pig lineage were found from archaeological specimens together with Ryukyu wild boars native to the Ryukyu archipelago. Phylogenetic analysis of 14 ancient sequences (11 haplotypes; 574 bp) indicated that S. scrofa specimens from two Yayoi-Heian sites (Kitahara and Ara shellmiddens) and two Recent Times sites (Wakuta Kiln and Kiyuna sites) are grouped with modern East Asian domestic pigs. Sus scrofa specimens from Shimizu shellmidden (Yayoi-Heian Period) were very closely related to modern Sus scrofa riukiuanus but had a unique nucleotide insertion, indicating that the population is genetically distinct from the lineage of modern Ryukyu wild boars. This genetic evidence suggests that domestic pigs from the Asian continent were introduced to the Okinawa islands in the early Yayoi-Heian period (1700–2000 BP), or earlier.     

Press responses to the presence of free-living Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) in southern England

Wildlife management and conservation programmes are likely to attract media attention, especially when the programmes in question involve large mammals. The present study surveyed the response of the press (national and local newspapers, and magazines) to the existence of two populations of free‐living Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) that established in southern England in the early 1990s, following the escape of animals from captivity. One‐hundred and seven target articles from 46 different titles were searched for references to 18 separate issues related to topics such as agricultural damage, risk to humans and ecological impact. The presence of free‐living Wild Boar in the English countryside attracted predominantly negative press coverage: the issues most frequently raised by newspaper and magazine articles were that the animals constitute a danger to the public, damage agricultural crops, predate livestock and transmit disease. A minority of articles argued that the animals should be conserved, mainly on the grounds that they could be hunted for meat. There was relatively little coverage of environmental issues, and what there was tended to focus on detrimental effects of Wild Boar on native flora and fauna. We conclude that management and conservation programmes involving large, allegedly dangerous mammals are likely to encounter an adverse press reaction. This is something that the organizers of such programmes may need to take into account when predicting public attitudes.     

云南南部地区野猪群体的遗传多样性

野猪(Sus scrofa)是家猪的祖先,也是野生动物遗传资源和生物多样性的重要组成部分.为了阐明其群体遗传变异,以对其进一步有效保护和合理利用提供科学依据,本研究采用分布在家猪19条染色体上的76个微卫星标记对云南南部地区野猪群体65只个体进行了群体遗传变异分析.共检测到349个等位基因,每个座位的等位基因数从3到9不等,有效等位基因数在1.683 5-8.066 7之间,平均每个座位等位基因数(4.592 1±1.145 2)个,有效等位基因数(3.709 9±0.990 4)个,群体平均表观杂合度、期望杂合度及平均多态信息含量分别为(0.949 2±0.113 5)、(0.711 6±0.078 7)和(0.663 4±0.092 1).结果表明,本实验检测到的野猪群体遗传多样性较丰富.     

小兴安岭南坡春季野猪活动规律

2005年4~5月,在小兴安岭南坡利用无线电遥测技术对笼式活捕的12头野猪(Sus scrofa ussuricua)的活动规律进行144h的监测。结果表明,小兴安岭南坡野猪春季的活动高峰主要集中于8:00~18:00时,5个活动强度峰值分别为76.52%、89.23%、91.56%、78.79%和84.46%;活动规律表现为白天活动而夜间休息;活动时间略少于休息时间;雄性野猪日活动量大于雌性(P=0.021,t=2.474),差异显著,成体野猪的日活动量和亚成体差异不显著(P=0.287,t=-1.089),家族群野猪日活动量显著小于孤野猪(P=0.039,t=-2.194)。     

太阳能警示灯对野猪危害农田影响研究

近年来,野猪(Sus scrofa)数量增加,与人冲突不断加剧。2016年8至10月,在吉林省珲春市春化镇开展了太阳能警示灯防控野猪危害农田效果的研究。本研究将首次防控有效期和首次防控范围作为衡量防控措施是否有效的首要依据。首次防控有效期定义为从实验开始到野猪首次进入样地的时间。首次防控范围定义为野猪首次危害农田处与防控设施安放点的直线距离,并将其转化为范围指数。研究结果表明:(1)实验组与对照组相比,首次防控有效期均存在显著差异(P0.05),对照组的首次防控有效期为(2.7±0.5)d,1 000 m A红色警示灯的首次防控有效期为(36.0±1.4)d,效果最佳;1 000 m A白色警示灯的首次防控有效期为(7.3±0.5)d,防控效果最差。(2)除1 000 m A白色和蓝色警示灯的所有实验组以外,与对照组相比首次范围指数存在显著差异(P0.05)。(3)光质不同的实验组间首次防控有效期及首次范围指数存在显著差异(P0.05),红色警示灯的防控效果依次强于绿色、黄色、蓝色、白色;1 000 m A、800 m A、600 m A的不同光强实验组间防控效果无显著差异(P0.05)。(4)警示灯是否闪烁不能对野猪危害防控效果产生显著性影响(P0.05)。太阳能警示灯能够有效控制野猪的活动范围,从而降低野猪对农田的危害。     

Hyper‐abundance of Native Wild Pigs (Sus scrofa) in a Lowland Dipterocarp Rain Forest of Peninsular Malaysia1

This study reports extraordinarily high density estimates for the wild pig (Sus scrofa) from an aseasonal tropical forest site within the species'native range. At Pasoh Forest Reserve, a 2500 ha area of lowland dipterocarp rain forest in Peninsular Malaysia, line transects were used to estimate pig density from May to October in 1996 and 1998. In 1996, 44 sightings of S. scrofa consisting of 166 individuals were recorded along 81 km of transects. In 1998, 39 sightings documented 129 individuals along 79.9 km of transects. Estimated population density was 47.0 pigs/km² in 1996 and 27.0 pigs/km²‐ in 1998. Sus scrofa biomass in this forest was estimated at 1837 kg/km² and 1346 kg/ km² in 1996 and 1998, respectively. Differences between years were attributed to changes in the density of young pigs, coincident with a mast‐seeding year of dipterocarp trees in 1996. Pig densities at Pasoh Forest Reserve were much higher than at other forest locations within the species' native range in Europe and Asia. Because Pasoh Forest Reserve is a forest fragment, two factors likely account for the extremely high pig densities: (1) local extinction of natural predators (mainly tigers and leopards) and (2) an abundant year‐round food supply of African oil palm fruits from extensive plantations bordering the reserve.     

The development of the gene pool in the microevolution of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sus scrofa</Emphasis> and the role of heterozygosity in the breed-forming process

The gene pool formation of the modern domestic breeds of pig Sus scrofa domestica and their genesis based on hybridization of wild ancestral forms of the European and Asian origin were studied using molecular immunogenetic methods. Males of the European and Central Asian S. scrofa subspecies (S. s. scrofa and S. s. nigripes were hybridized with domestic pigs of the Swedish Landrace and Vietnamese Black Masked breeds. In addition, we examined the genotypic structure of 65 wild, aboriginal, and local populations as well as cultured breeds, including the stock breeds with different levels of selection. Frequencies of alleles and suballelles of the chromosome 4 locus controlling antigens of the L blood group system were analyzed. The origin of marker suballeles of the European and Asian origin was estimated in the most widespread world pig breeds. Unexpectedly, a strikingly high frequency of the Asian elements was found in the most productive European and American breeds, as well as in the best breeds of Russia and other CIS countries. Only one form of heterozygosity (bcgi/bdfi) was found in a population of wild European ancestors, whereas domestic pig breeds displayed heterozygosity for far more numerous suballeles of the locus studied. Animals with heterozygosity for alleles of the European and Asian origin showed higher adaptivity and fertility.__________Translated from Genetika, Vol. 41, No. 4, 2005, pp. 566–576.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Tikhonov.     

Comparative cytogenetic studies in Sus verrucosus,Sus celebensis and Sus scrofa vittatus (Suidae,Mammalia)

Chromosome studies on the Javan warty pig (Sus verrucosus), the Sulawesi warty pig (S. celebensis) and a subspecies of the wild boar, S. scrofa vittatus, have revealed diploid chromosome numbers of 38. The morphology and C-band size of chromosome 10 are different in S. verrucosus and the two other species. Both S. verrucosus and S. celebensis have a Y chromosome that is larger than the Y chromosome of domestic and wild S. scrofa, and is submetacentric rather than metacentric. There are differences between all three species in the G-banding pattern of the long arm of the Y chromosome. The presence of 2n=38 chromosomes in the Javan warty pig and the Sulawesi warty pig provides new strong evidence that the basic chromosome number in the genus Sus is 38. The differences in karyotype between these pigs (chromosome 10 and the Y chromosome) confirm that they are separate species.     

东北亚地区野猪种群mtDNA遗传结构及系统地理发生

研究测定了中国东北、华北及四川西部72个野猪(Susscrofa)个体线粒体控制区全序列,并结合GenBank报道的日本野猪(S.s.leucomystax)、琉球野猪(S.s.riukiuanus)72个同源区序列,分析了东北亚地区野猪线粒体DNA的变异及系统地理格局。在东北亚地区野猪的线粒体控制区共发现42个变异位点,均为转换,共定义了34个单元型。单元型之间的系统发生分析表明,东北亚地区野猪来自同一祖先。东北亚地区野猪现生种群具有显著的种群遗传结构,其中日本野猪与分布于中国东北地区的东北野猪之间亲缘关系较近;而琉球野猪则与华北野猪间亲缘关系较近,与日本野猪和东北野猪间的关系相对较远。嵌套进化枝系统地理分析(Nestedcladephylogeographicalanalysis,NCPA)表明:东北亚地区野猪由同一祖先经过长距离的迁徙而形成现生各种群(或亚种);琉球野猪应起源于大陆野猪,其种群演化可能经历了片断化事件;华北野猪呈现南部种群遗传多样性高的特点,其种群内部曾经历了一次分布区由南向北的扩张     

Evolutionary genetics of the suiformes as reconstructed using mtDNA sequencing

We have amplified and sequnced the entire mitochondrial DNA cytochromeb gene from four species of Suidae: babirusa, warthog, bearded pig, and some specimens belonging to different subspecies and populations of wild and domestic pigs (Sus scrofa). These sequences were aligned with additional mammalian sequences retrieved from the literature and were used to obtain phylogenetic trees of the Suiformes (Artiodactyla). Several species of Carnivora, Perissodactyla. Cetacea, and other Artiodactyla were used as outgroups. Molecular phylogenetic relationships among the Suiformes reflect their current taxonomy: Hippopotamidae, Tayassuidae, and Suidae are separated by deep genetic gaps, and the division of the Suidae into the subfamilies Babyrousinae., Phacochoerinae, and Suinae has strong genetic correlates. Cytochromeb sequences show differences among Asian and Western populations ofSus scrofa, agreeing with other genetic information (karyotypes blood groups, and protein variability). The two Italian subspecies of wild boar have unique mtDNA cytochromeb haplotypes. The evolutionary rates of cytochromeb sequences are different at transitions versus transversions as well as at first, second, and third positions of codons. Therefore, these classes of substitutions reached different levels of mutational saturation. Only transversions and the conservative first and second position substitutions are linearly related to genetic distances among the Suiformes. Therefore, divergence times were computed using unsaturated conserved nucleotide substitutions and calibrated using paleontological divergence times between some Artiodactyla. Transversions apparently evolve at remarkably regular rates in ungulate taxa which have accumulated less than 20% estimated sequence divergence, corresponding to about 40–45 million years of independent evolution. Molecular, information suggests that Hippopotamidae and Tayassuidae are not closely related (as stated by Pickford, 1986, 1989, 1993) and that the origin of babirusa and warthog (about 10–19 and 5–15 million years ago, respectively) is more recent than supported by current evolutionary reconstructions. The inferred origin of bearded pig is about 2.1 million years old, and genetic divergence among differentSus scrofa populations is probably a Pleistocene event. The addition of new sequences of Suiformes does not help in resolving the phylogenetic position ofHippopotamus amphibius, which shows weak but recurrent linkages with the cetacean evolutionary lineage.To whom correspondence should be addressed.     

Onchocerca dewittei japonica n. subsp., a common parasite from wild boar in Kyushu Island, Japan

We describe Onchocerca dewittei japonica n. subsp. from the Japanese wild boar, Sus scrofa leucomystax, in Oita, Kyushu Island, where all seven animals examined were found to be infected. This study began with efforts to identify the causative species in a recent case of zoonotic onchocerciasis. Compared with Onchocerca dewittei dewittei from Sus scrofa jubatus in Malaysia, which was reexamined here, our new subspecies has much greater space between the ridges on the females. In addition, its microfilariae (from uteri) are shorter (192-210 microns compared with 228-247 microns), and only the posterior third of the microfilarial body is coiled, instead of the entire body. The Onchocerca species parasitic in suids (these two subspecies and O. ramachandrini from the warthog in the Ethiopian region) form a group sharing several characters. Among the most unusual characters are the body swellings (a specialized apparatus for mating, known in only a few other genera). In addition, longitudinal cuticular crests were found on males of both subspecies from wild boar and on females of O. ramachandrini.     

On the evolutionary consequences of increasing litter size with multiple paternity in wild boar (Sus scrofa scrofa)

Understanding how some species may be able to evolve quickly enough to deal with anthropogenic pressure is of prime interest in evolutionary biology, conservation, and management. Wild boar (Sus scrofa scrofa) populations keep growing all over Europe despite increasing hunting pressure. In wild boar populations subject to male‐selective harvesting, the initially described polygynous mating system may switch to a promiscuous/polyandrous one. Such a change in the mating system, where potentially more males sire a litter at one reproductive event, may be associated with the retention of high genetic diversity and an increase of litter size. We tested these hypotheses by estimating the number of sires per litter based on a six‐year long monitoring of a wild boar population subject to particularly high harvesting pressure. Our results show a high and stable genetic diversity and high rates of multiple paternity compared to other populations, thus depicting a promiscuous/polyandrous mating system in this population. We also show that litter size is positively linked to the number of sires, suggesting that multiple paternity increases fecundity. We finally discuss that multiple paternity may be one of the factors allowing rapid evolution of this population by maintaining both genetic and phenotypic diversity.     

Characterizing the mammalian hair present in Great Tit (Parus major) nests

Capsule Many birds are known to incorporate mammal hair into their nest lining, but the frequency with which they use hair from different mammals is unknown. We performed one of the first detailed examinations of mammalian hair from 54 Great Tit nests. We identified 5317 hairs belonging to 21 mammal species. Almost all of the examined nests contained hair from Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus), but hair from Wild Boars (Sus scrofa), European Hares (Lepus europaeus) and Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) was also common.     

Chromosome translocations in the karyotypes of wild boars Sus scrofa L. of the European and the Asian areas of USSR

Summary The karyotypes of the 80 wild boars of the four subspecies, Sus scrofa ussuricus Heude from the Far East of USSR, S. s. nigripes Blanf. from Kirghizia (the Middle Asia), S. s. attila Thos. from Azerbaijan, S. s. ferus from Lithuania, Byelorussia and Central Russia, and the 44 domestic pigs of the five different breeds (Vietnamese Black, Siberian Omskaja Gray, Kakhethian-aborigen Georgian, Mangalica Hungarian, Landrace Swedish), were studied by the Giemsa Banding Method. Differential staining by the G-Method made it possible to identify all the homologous chromosomes of the wild and domestic pig karyotypes as well as to reveal the polymorphism of wild boar karyotypes (2n = 36, 37 and 38), which are determined by the two types of chromosome translocation. Crosses between domestic pigs (2n = 38) and wild boars (2n = 36 and 37) with different chromosome rearrangements might help to clarify the genetic function of the chromosomes A4, B3, B4, B5 and allow their use as genetic markers.     

Mammal distributions in the western Mediterranean: the role of human intervention

The natural distribution of the 17 non-flying mammal species occurring wild in both the Maghreb (north-west Africa) and Iberia (south-west Europe) is considered. It is concluded that only four species – Red Fox Vulpes vulpes, Wild Boar Sus scrofa, Wild Cat Felis silvestris and Otter Lutra lutra – are native to both regions, while another three – Red Deer Cervus elaphus, Brown Bear Ursus arctos and Aurochs Bos primigenius – were native to North Africa until the mid-Holocene but have probably died out naturally. Algerian Hedgehog Atelerix algirus, Barbary Ape Macaca sylvanus, Genet Genetta genetta and Egyptian Mongoose Herpestes ichneumon are widely accepted as introductions to Europe from North Africa. The remaining six species, and Red Deer now found in Africa, were also probably introduced – Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus, Weasel Mustela nivalis, Wood Mouse Apodemus sylvaticus and Lesser White-toothed Shrew Crocidura russula from Europe to Africa; Algerian Mouse Mus spretus from Africa to Europe; Savi’s Pygmy Shrew Suncus etruscus perhaps from the eastern Mediterranean to both Iberia and the Maghreb. There are two Maghrebi species which, although not found in Europe, are more closely related to Palaearctic than to Afrotropical species: Garden Dormouse Eliomys melanurus, probably native to north-west Africa, although possible augmentation of the natural population cannot be ruled out, and Whitaker’s Shrew Crocidura whitakeri, a North African endemic. Removal of so many species of European provenance from the list of mammals native to north-west Africa should not be considered to weaken its position as part of the Palaearctic zoogeographical region. Bats and other, non-mammalian, taxa illustrate the clear faunal relationship between the Maghreb and south-west Europe, whilst emphasizing its distinction from subsaharan Africa.     

北京市延庆区哺乳动物多样性、 分布及影响因素

2017和2018年,综合样线调查法、红外相机法、样方笼捕法、洞穴调查法和访问调查法五种方法对北京市延庆区哺乳动物多样性及分布进行调查,并分析了影响其多度与分布的因素。本次调查结果显示,北京市延庆区有哺乳动物7目15科21种。从相对丰富度指数(RAI)来看,野猪(Sus scrofa)占绝对优势(28.27%),其次猪獾(Arctonyx collaris)(21.47%)、亚洲狗獾(Meles leucurus)(13.79%),最少的是山东小麝鼩(Crocidura shantungensis)和东北鼢鼠(Myospalax psilurus)仅为0.17%。从分布上来看,野猪分布最广,占全部调查网格数的84.21%;其次是猪獾和亚洲狗獾,各占73.68%;山东小麝鼩等6个物种各只在1个网格中记录到,占全部网格的5.26%。所有工作区域中,延庆区西南的松山保护区及野鸭湖保护区物种丰富度最高,东北部的水头沟和九眼楼风景区物种丰富度最低。当前威胁哺乳动物多样性的因素主要是"水源情况"和"人类活动",为更好地保护该区域哺乳动物多样性,建议:(1)在缺水的区域进行人工引水或建立永久补水点;(2)在非保护区加强对野生动物的保护宣传,以减少旅游登山等对野生哺乳动物的干扰。     

The origin of the domestic pig: independent domestication and subsequent introgression

The domestic pig originates from the Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa). We have sequenced mitochondrial DNA and nuclear genes from wild and domestic pigs from Asia and Europe. Clear evidence was obtained for domestication to have occurred independently from wild boar subspecies in Europe and Asia. The time since divergence of the ancestral forms was estimated at approximately 500,000 years, well before domestication approximately 9,000 years ago. Historical records indicate that Asian pigs were introduced into Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries. We found molecular evidence for this introgression and the data indicated a hybrid origin of some major "European" pig breeds. The study is an advance in pig genetics and has important implications for the maintenance and utilization of genetic diversity in this livestock species.     

PGD variants in several wild pig populations of East Asia

PGD (6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase) gene frequencies were reported in wild pigs, Sus scrofa, of three subspecies, i.e. Japanese wild pig, S.s. leucomystax, Ryukyu wild pig, S.s. riukiuanus, and Formosan wild pig, S.s. taivanus. Five phenotypes (A, AB, B, AC' and C') were observed. The C' variant was found only in the S.s. leucomystax, and may be identical to PGD-C reported by Archibald & McTeir (1988). PGD-A was a common variant in all the species in the genus Sus including wild pig, Sus scrofa, Javan pig, Sus verrucosus, and Bearded pig, Sus barbatus, and predominated in the whole populations examined except some of those of the S.s. riukiuanus. This suggested that the PGDA appeared before the other two alleles (B and C') during the evolution of the genus Sus.