Phylogenetic thinking in the modern biology

Any research activity is conducted within the framework of a cognitive situation which is defined by certain basic assumptions about ontology of the portion of the objective world under investigation. From the standpoint of the non-classical scientific epistemology, a part of that situation is constituted by personal knowledge which is formed by a set of thinking (cognitive) styles. The scholastic thinking existing in taxonomy and phylogenetics is considered as an example showing unavoidability of such styles in the natural history knowledge. It is initially rooted in the antic, mythological by its essence, persuasion of isomorphism between movements of the objective reality and of the mind. The instrumentalism entailed by scholastic thinking is based on the mythologeme according to which the "right method" par excellence can lead to the "right knowledge". That is why any disputes between different numerical methods of phylogenetic reconstructions are vain: their validity could be assessed not formally but within particular cognitive situations formed by particular basic models of the phylogenesis. Phylogenetic thinking is of the key importance in evolutionary biology and has great impact on various fields of biology based on it. It is pretty mythological because of non-observability of the phylogenesis: the latter is rather "thinked-in" in the objective world then is induced from the observed facts. It constitutes a part of the evolutionary thinking considering mainly macroevolutionary trends and stressing the initial causes in the structure of causal relations in the analyses of the diversity of organisms. The "tree thinking" of O'Hara is its rough operational equivalent. Relation between phylogenetic thinking and some other styles are considered, which are population, phenetic, typological, and epigenetic ("developmental" of O'Hara). Phylogenetic thinking makes it obliged inclusion of the initial causes in the explanatory models which underlie adaptive and functional peculiarities of organisms, as well as of the entire structure of the biodiversity. It manifests itself in such kind of models through uncovering the phylogenetic signal. This thinking style has great effect on understanding of the ontology of taxa and acknowledges the objective status of the phylogenetic pattern. It is intrinsically included in the argumentation schemes of constructional morphology, comparative phylogenetics. The central metaphor of the phylogenetics is the Tree of Life. Emagination of its unity and uniquiness is of naturphilosophical nature. From the contemporary epistemological standpoint, it should be considered as a generalization upon partial hypotheses of evolution of particular structures each corresponding to certain consideration aspect of the global phylogenesis. Acknowledging of multi-aspectness of the phylogenesis constitutes one of the important points of modern phylogenetic thinking. As different semogeneses are incompletely congruent, the Tree of Life is less certain than each of the initial hypotheses. Any attempt to make it more resolved would lead to its reduction to any of the particular semogenetic scheme (i.e. to a "gene tree") or to its "decay" into several trees each corresponding to a particular consideration aspect of the global Tree.     

660. NUYTSIA FLORIBUNDA

Summary. Nuytsia floribunda (Labill.) R.Br. ex G.Don, a monotypic arborescent root hemiparasite endemic to the Southwest Australian Floristic Region, sister to all other showy mistletoes, is described and illustrated. A review is provided of its mythological and practical use by Noongar Aborigines, its discovery and early documentation by Europeans, and its phylogeny, biology, ecology and systematics. Experiences with its cultivation and propagation before and after it was discovered to be parasitic are discussed. Nuytsia provides a useful case study for testing many hypotheses developed in OCBIL theory, which aims to explain the evolution and ecology of, and best conservation practices for, biota on very old, climatically buffered, infertile landscapes (i.e. OCBILs), found especially in regions such as the Southwest Australian Floristic Region, the Greater Cape of South Africa and the Pantepui of Venezuela.     

Restoration ecology: the study of applied optimism

As a young trainee in the field of restoration ecology in the modern age, it is difficult to feel optimistic about our future. As many environmental protections are de‐regulated and the climate crisis heightens, I turned to restoration to find hope in a changing world. Restoration ecologists are the optimists of biology. We work every day to make the world a better place and our passion and forward thinking spurred the United Nation's “decade of restoration.” Learning about the successes of the hardworking members of this field gives me hope. As the earth moves toward an unimaginable future, we should continue to try to make the world a better place and encourage those around us to act and restore the environments they value, whether it be large‐scale restoration or preserving garden pollinator habitat. I am forever thankful to restoration ecology and the optimism the field provides.     

盐度对红树植物海莲幼苗的生长和某些生理生态特性的影响

本文主要探讨了不同盐度海水砂培的海莲幼苗生长量和某些生理生态特性与盐度的相关效应。结果表明,生长基盐度20‰以上,海莲繁殖体的萌苗时间推迟,成活率降低;随着盐度的提高,幼苗高生长量降低,叶片变小;叶片叶绿素含量随盐度提高而提高,相反的叶片可溶性糖含量则降低,而叶片可溶性蛋白质含量变化不明显;叶片组织内氯含量随盐度提高而提高;随着盐度的提高,叶片蒸腾作用减弱,气孔导度降低。由此表明,海莲幼苗适宜生长的盐度范围在15‰以下,更高的盐度表现为生态抗盐适应性生长。     

So you want to be a science writer

The Internet destroyed the ecology of traditional science journalism, drying up ad revenues and pushing “old school” mass media toward extinction. But the new technology opened a wider landscape for digital science writers, online “content curators,” and scientists to chronicle the wonders and worries of modern science. For those thinking of a career in science writing, here is a flash history, a quick overview, some advice, and a few cautions.     

现代生态学的若干方法论问题

当代科学迅速发展的同时,不断提出大量的科学方法论问题。随着人口、食物、能源、环境污染与自然资源保护等重大社会问题的出现,现代生态学的发展显得特别令人注目。为了认识生命自然界之间及其与人类社会之间存在的复杂生态关系,现代生态学正不断地向数学、物理、化学、地学,其它生物学分支(特别是遗传学)……以至有关社会科学的各个学科中吸取先进的方法和手段。随着自身抽象化程度的提     

区域生态学的特点、学科定位及其与相邻学科的关系

区域生态学作为生态学的一门重要分支学科,起源于20世纪70年代的区域综合科学考察和环境污染调查,旨在研究区域生态环境问题形成背景和驱动因子,探讨区域生态环境问题解决的思路和方法。基于前人研究成果和文献综述,系统分析了区域生态学研究的特点,剖析了区域生态学的性质和学科定位。在此基础上进一步比较了区域生态学与景观生态学、生态系统生态学、区域自然地理学和宏观生态学的共性与差异。认为:(1)区域生态学研究对象是具有特定生态环境属性的区域生态综合体,既具有特定要素主导下的空间均质性,也具有多种要素耦合作用下的空间异质性特征,是一门问题导向的应用性基础学科;(2)区域生态学研究需要具有多元综合、问题导向和系统集成的思维,从多层次、多视角探讨区域生态环境问题的解决方案;(3)区域生态学属于宏观生态学研究的范畴,处于分子生态学、个体生态学、种群生态学、群落生态学、生态系统生态学、景观生态学、区域生态学和全球生态学这个生态学学科体系的较高层次。     

Why is the world green? The interactions of top–down and bottom–up processes in terrestrial vegetation ecology

A classic question in plant ecology is “why is the world green?” That is, if plants are food for animals why do not animals eat all the available food – changing a ‘green world’ into a ‘brown world’. We first reviewed this question in 2009 and now revisit our arguments in the light of new data and new thinking. Here we argue that (1) the top–down bottom–up dichotomy is probably too simple for understanding a complex system – such as vegetation – rich in feedback processes. (2) Nevertheless it appears that bottom–up processes are generally more important for maintaining the presence of some sort of vegetation while top–down control process are generally more important in determining the type of vegetation at a site. (3) Although this review mainly takes a qualitative and experimental approach to the question, we also argue that simple well-known mathematical models from population ecology can be very informative in thinking about the types of explanations for the green world phenomenon, and demonstrating that it is rarely a simple choice between one form of control or another.     

《生态学基础》：对生态学从传统向现代的推进——纪念E.P.奥德姆诞辰100周年

2013年是“现代生态学之父”美国生态学家奥德姆诞辰100周年。奥德姆的《生态学基础》一书对生态学从传统向现代转换具有积极的推进作用,主要表现在：提升了生态科学的量化水平,促成了生态系统生态学体系的诞生;倡导了生态学与经济学等社会科学的融合,丰富了生态经济学与生态系统服务功能研究;延展了生态学的应用尺度,为社会的生产变革和绿色运动提供了指导。奥德姆的生态学理论中诸如以能量分析为主导的生态系统分析方法还有待完善、生态系统方面较少考虑进化维度,衡量能量质量高低的能值方法的科学性有改善的空间等,但这都无碍他成为世界上最杰出的生态学家之一。     

奥德姆的生态思想是整体论吗?

奥德姆的生态思想是妥协的整体论,有还原论的一面。把生态系统看作是功能性整体、承认生态系统各层次的涌现属性属于整体论,把生态关系简化为能量关系、把生态系统看作是物理系统的分析方法则是还原论的。这种矛盾的生态思想决定了其方法论的先天不足:生态模型的内在逻辑关系没有理顺;较少考虑生态系统的进化;生态研究方法的排它性等。但是,它并不妨碍奥德姆的生态思想在夯实生态学的本体论基础、促进理论生态学和生态工程学的形成、协调生态整体论与还原论分歧、奠定生态系统服务功能研究基础等方面发挥重要作用。要超越生态整体论与还原论,繁荣发展生态复杂性理论也许是最好的选择。     

生态学在现代科学发展中的地位

生态学这个术语由Heckel所首创(1869),在当时并未为学术界所接受,Heckel本人也时以“自然经济学”,时而以“个体生态学”取而代之。尔后,其它生态学家又作过各种不同的解释,如“自然科学史”,“自然界的结构与功能的研究”等,但对生态学解释持反对意见的也不乏其人,如俄国著名的植物生理学家季米里亚捷夫直到最后才放弃自己的意     

发展海岛旅游业的制约因素及对策

21世纪将是人类对海洋全面认识,充分利用,切实保护的新世纪。特别是作为这个世纪旅游新时尚的海岛旅游业的发展,正面临来自环境条件的诸多挑战。为进一步利用海洋资源,满足现代人追求人文生态的精神生活需求,只有在切实解决资金、生态、体制等制约瓶颈的基础上,探索可持续发展的战略思路,才能逐步实现海岛旅游由传统的海洋开发向现代的生态式海洋开发转变。     

Industrial Ecology and Competitiveness

In the emerging field of industrial ecology one of the unsettled questions is the degree to which design for the environment, closing energy and materials loops, and other industrial ecology concepts apply at the firm level. In this article we examine this issue with a particular focus on whether industrial ecology can guide company strategy and efforts to enhance competitiveness.
We conclude that industrial ecology thinking will often be useful for firms seeking to improve their resource productivity and thus their competitiveness. The systems perspective that industrial ecology promotes can help companies find ways to add value or reduce costs both within their own production processes and up and down the supply chain. But industrial ecology cannot always be counted upon to yield competitive advantage at the firm level. In some cases, the cost of closing loops will exceed the benefits. In other cases, regulatory requirements do not fully internalize environmental costs, and thus polluting firms may gain temporary or permanent cost advantages relative to companies that attempt to eliminate all emissions. Finally, because industrial ecology focuses attention on materials and energy flows, it may not optimize other variables that contribute to competitiveness within the corporate setting.     

Water policy in southern Africa: A brief synopsis of some of the macro driving forces

The water sector reforms that are underway in many parts of southern Africa are a manifestation of a global phenomenon. This is rooted in the human response to the undesirable consequences of development, and seeks to introduce the notion of sustainability into the modern development discourse. This has given rise to an academic discipline that is known as political ecology, which seeks to understand the political construction of environmental knowledge. As it is currently formulated, political ecology is highly Eurocentric, meaning that African scholars should become engaged in its intellectual development. This political ecology discourse is relatively new in southern African academic circles, and can be helpful in explaining dynamics that are shaping the World Water Vision, Global Water Partnership, World Commission on Dams and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, all of which are relevant in the contemporary water sector.     

Energy Flow in Ecosystems: A Historical Review

A generalized model of energy flow applicable both to individualpopulations and food chains is discussed. The basic ideas ofenergy flow and trophic levels are described, and it is emphasizedthat the concept of trophic level is not primarily applicableto individual species. The efficacy of rates of population energyflow as a measure of importance in community function is stressed,and the disadvantages associated with measures of density andbiomass are pointed out. Finally, the historical developmentof energy-oriented thinking in ecology is traced in a seriesof ten steps dating from the late 19th century. The growingimportance of systems analysis and the use of computer modelsto simulate ecological functions are recognized as major areasof emphasis during the next decade.     

Science, Art, or Application—the "Karma" of Restoration Ecology

The present state of restoration ecology is far away from Bradshaw’s “acid test for ecology.” The conclusions drawn from the series of papers in this issue and from the Jena workshop suggest some directions in which the field may progress. More attention must be paid to the degraded state, which should be evaluated by its specific features and carefully analyzed before any restoration plan is laid down. Restoration goals have to be realistic, which includes the appreciation of globally changing conditions, resulting in a paradigm‐shift toward “forward‐restoration.” Basically, the transition from the degraded state conditions to the target state is a kind of succession that is manipulated by the application of goal‐orientated and system‐specific disturbances. Whenever possible, restorationists should step back and make use of naturally occurring succession, which requires a sophisticated restoration strategy, involving flexible management responses, multiple alternative target states, robust measurements for the restoration progress, and careful long‐term monitoring. The unique feature of restoration ecology is the involvement of socioeconomic decisions, and conceptual frameworks for ecological restoration have to implement the specific links to natural succession. To bridge the gap between ecological theory and on the ground restoration, it is essential that restoration practice is translated into the vocabulary and thinking of basic ecology. If all these aspects are integrated, ecological restoration as an application—and restoration ecology as an applied science—may develop into an acid test for our understanding of interactions between people and their environment, rather than for pure ecology.     

The Philosophical Dullness of Classical Ecology, and a Levinsian Alternative

Ecology has had a lower profile in Biology & Philosophy than one might expect on the basis of the attention ecology is given in public discussions in relation to environmental issues. Our tentative explanation is that ecology appears theoretically redundant within biology and, consequently, philosophically challenging problemsrelated to biology are commonly supposed to be somewhere else, particularly in the molecular sphere. Richard Levins has recognized the genuine challenges posed by ecology for theoretical and philosophical thinking in biology. This essay sets the stage for appreciating his work; it was preceded by four articles published in Biology & Philosophy 15(2),and is followed by a personal reminiscent.     

应用生态学的现状与展望

应用生态学是迅猛发展的现代生态学的主体．寻求解决人口、资源、环境等问题是应用生态学发展的主要动力．经过40年的发展,应用生态学已发展成为一个庞大的学科门类．应用生态学未来的发展应更多地关注受人类影响和管理的生态系统并将人视为生态系统的组成成分．应用生态学在当前和今后应给予优先重视的研究领域,包括生态系统与生物圈的可持续利用、生态系统服务与生态设计、转基因生物的生态学评价、生物入侵生态学、流行病生态学、生态预报、生态过程及其调控等．在今后若干年内。围绕这些领域,可能会出现广泛而活跃的研究热潮以及一些新的特点．     

Perspectives on facilitating dynamic ecology courses online using active learning

As education methodology has grown to incorporate online learning, disciplines with a field component, like ecology, may find themselves sidelined in this transition. In response to challenges posed by moving classes online, previous studies have assessed whether an online environment can be effective for student learning. This work has found that active learning structures, which maximize information processing and require critical thinking, best support student learning. All too commonly, online and active learning are perceived as mutually exclusive. We argue the success of online learning requires facilitating active learning in online spaces. To highlight this intersection in practice, we use a case study of an online, active, and synchronous ecology and conservation biology course from the College of Natural Sciences at Minerva Schools at KGI. We use our perspectives as curriculum designers, instructors, and students of this course to offer recommendations for creating active online ecology courses. Key components to effective course design and implementation are as follows: facilitating critical “thinking like a scientist”, integrating open‐ended assignments into class discussion, and creating active in‐class dialogues by minimizing lecturing. Based on our experience, we suggest that by employing active learning strategies, the future of ecology in higher education is not inhibited, but in fact supported, by opportunities for learning online.     

Behavioural ecology's ethological roots

Since Krebs and Davies's (1978) landmark publication, it is acknowledged that behavioural ecology owes much to the ethological tradition in the study of animal behaviour. Although this assumption seems to be right-many of the first behavioural ecologists were trained in departments where ethology developed and matured-it still to be properly assessed. In this paper, I undertake to identify the approaches used by ethologists that contributed to behavioural ecology's constitution as a field of inquiry. It is my contention that the current practices in behavioural biology owe ethology something much subtler than the simple transposition of Tinbergen's Four Problems for heuristic purposes. Demonstrating what ethology inherited from the long naturalist tradition shows the tensions that strained the field and that later led to the loss of both its unity and its specificity. It also allows for a precise delineating of what behavioural ecology picked up from the ethological practice, and it helps to cast some light on the introduction of economical thinking in behavioural sciences.