ConR: An R package to assist large‐scale multispecies preliminary conservation assessments using distribution data

The Red List Categories and the accompanying five criteria developed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) provide an authoritative and comprehensive methodology to assess the conservation status of organisms. Red List criterion B, which principally uses distribution data, is the most widely used to assess conservation status, particularly of plant species. No software package has previously been available to perform large‐scale multispecies calculations of the three main criterion B parameters [extent of occurrence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO) and an estimate of the number of locations] and provide preliminary conservation assessments using an automated batch process. We developed ConR, a dedicated R package, as a rapid and efficient tool to conduct large numbers of preliminary assessments, thereby facilitating complete Red List assessment. ConR (1) calculates key geographic range parameters (AOO and EOO) and estimates the number of locations sensu IUCN needed for an assessment under criterion B; (2) uses this information in a batch process to generate preliminary assessments of multiple species; (3) summarize the parameters and preliminary assessments in a spreadsheet; and (4) provides a visualization of the results by generating maps suitable for the submission of full assessments to the IUCN Red List. ConR can be used for any living organism for which reliable georeferenced distribution data are available. As distributional data for taxa become increasingly available via large open access datasets, ConR provides a novel, timely tool to guide and accelerate the work of the conservation and taxonomic communities by enabling practitioners to conduct preliminary assessments simultaneously for hundreds or even thousands of species in an efficient and time‐saving way.     

Least concern to endangered: Applying climate change projections profoundly influences the extinction risk assessment for wild Arabica coffee

Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica) is a key crop in many tropical countries and globally provides an export value of over US$13 billion per year. Wild Arabica coffee is of fundamental importance for the global coffee sector and of direct importance within Ethiopia, as a source of harvestable income and planting stock. Published studies show that climate change is projected to have a substantial negative influence on the current suitable growing areas for indigenous Arabica in Ethiopia and South Sudan. Here we use all available future projections for the species based on multiple general circulation models (GCMs), emission scenarios, and migration scenarios, to predict changes in Extent of Occurrence (EOO), Area of Occupancy (AOO), and population numbers for wild Arabica coffee. Under climate change our results show that population numbers could reduce by 50% or more (with a few models showing over 80%) by 2088. EOO and AOO are projected to decline by around 30% in many cases. Furthermore, present‐day models compared to the near future (2038), show a reduction for EOO of over 40% (with a few cases over 50%), although EOO should be treated with caution due to its sensitivity to outlying occurrences. When applying these metrics to extinction risk, we show that the determination of generation length is critical. When applying the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red list of Threatened Species (IUCN Red List) criteria, even with a very conservative generation length of 21 years, wild Arabica coffee is assessed as Threatened with extinction (placed in the Endangered category) under a broad range of climate change projections, if no interventions are made. Importantly, if we do not include climate change in our assessment, Arabica coffee is assessed as Least Concern (not threatened) when applying the IUCN Red List criteria.     

A new method to estimate areas of occupancy using herbarium data

The World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species is an important instrument to evaluate the conservation status of living organisms. However, Red List assessors have been limited by the lack of reliable methods to calculate the area of occupancy (AOO) of species, which is an important parameter for red list assessments. Here we present a new practical method to estimate AOO based on herbarium specimen data: the Cartographic method by Conglomerates (CMC). This method, which combines elements from the Areographic and Cartographic methods previously used to calculate AOO, was tested with ten cactus species from the Chihuahuan Desert Region. The results derived from this novel procedure produced in average AOO calculations 3.5 and 5.5 smaller than the Areographic and Cartographic methods, respectively. The CMC takes into account the existence of disjunctions in the distribution range of the species, producing comparatively more accurate AOO estimations. Another advantage of the CMC is that it generates results more harmonic with the current Red List criteria. In contrast, the overestimated results of the Areographic and Cartographic methods tend to artificially categorize the species, even extremely narrow endemics, in lower endangerment status.     

Improving the estimation of area of occupancy for IUCN Red List assessments by using a circular buffer approach

The area of occupancy (AOO) is one of the main measures used by IUCN to quantify range size for species. AOO represents the area of suitable habitat currently occupied by the taxon and is usually quantified by counting the number of occupied cells in a uniform grid that covers the entire range of a taxon. However, this methodology adds uncertainty by the location of the origin of the grid frame. In this communication paper, we tested the influence of the origin of the grid frame used to quantify AOO and found for Swiss bryophytes that 14 species (out of 1089) fall into a different Red List category when the origin of the grid frame was shifted. With this and theoretical examples we show that AOO quantified by circles around the occurrences (a circular buffer approach) would reduce uncertainty significantly because they are independent of the origin of a grid frame. A circular buffer approach to quantify AOO contribute thus to more robust and accurate Red Lists and its usage is in accordance with the IUCN criteria.     

Supporting Red List threat assessments with GeoCAT: geospatial conservation assessment tool

GeoCAT is an open source, browser based tool that performs rapid geospatial analysis to ease the process of Red Listing taxa. Developed to utilise spatially referenced primary occurrence data, the analysis focuses on two aspects of the geographic range of a taxon: the extent of occurrence (EOO) and the area of occupancy (AOO). These metrics form part of the IUCN Red List categories and criteria and have often proved challenging to obtain in an accurate, consistent and repeatable way. Within a familiar Google Maps environment, GeoCAT users can quickly and easily combine data from multiple sources such as GBIF, Flickr and Scratchpads as well as user generated occurrence data. Analysis is done with the click of a button and is visualised instantly, providing an indication of the Red List threat rating, subject to meeting the full requirements of the criteria. Outputs including the results, data and parameters used for analysis are stored in a GeoCAT file that can be easily reloaded or shared with collaborators. GeoCAT is a first step toward automating the data handling process of Red List assessing and provides a valuable hub from which further developments and enhancements can be spawned.     

The desolation of Smaug: The human-driven decline of the Sungazer lizard (Smaug giganteus)

The Sungazer (Smaug giganteus) is a threatened lizard species endemic to the Highveld grasslands of South Africa. The species faces risks from habitat loss and fragmentation, and illegal harvesting for traditional medicine and the pet trade. Despite these threats, the current conservation status of the species was poorly validated. We visited 79 Sungazer populations recorded in 1978 to assess population change since the initial surveys, and surveyed an additional 164 sites to better define the distribution and estimate the current population size. We interrogated all known historical trade data of the species. One-third of Sungazer populations have been extirpated over the past 37 years. The distribution includes two allopatric populations, with the smaller Mpumalanga population experiencing a significantly higher decline. The species has an extent of occurrence (EOO) of 34 500 km², and an area of occupancy (AOO) of 1149 km². The interpreted distribution is 17 978 km², and just under 60% remains untransformed grassland. We estimate a population size of 677 000 mature individuals, down 48% from the estimated historical population, prior to commercial agricultural development. A total of 1194 live Sungazers were exported under permit from South Africa between 1985 and 2014, with a significant increase in numbers exported over the last decade. Without any evidence of captive breeding, we believe that these animals are all wild-caught. Based on the AOO, level of decline, fragmentation within the distribution and suspected level of exploitation, we recommend classification of the species as Vulnerable under IUCN Red List Criteria A2acd and B2ab(ii–v). The establishment of a protected area network, genetic research and further investigations into the pet and traditional medicine trades are urgently needed.     

关于物种濒危等级标准之探讨--对IUCN物种濒危等级的思考

为了保存地球上的生物多样性,我们需要根据物种的种群数量与分布、种群数量波动与分布区下降速率来评定濒危物种的濒危等级,并针对物种的濒危等级提出具体的保护措施。1994年11月,IUCN第40次理事会会议正式通过了经过修订的Mace-Lande物种濒危等级标准作为IUCN物种濒危等级标准。IUCN濒危物种红色名录虽然不是国际法和国家法律,但是对于政府间组织、非政府组织的保护决策以及各国的自然法律法规的制定有着深远的影响,在保护生物学理论研究中也发挥了一定作用。我们在研究制定中国水生野生生物濒危等级标准时发现,如果直接应用IUCN物种濒危等级标准评定水生野生生物濒危等级将存在一些问题。如：(1)如何区别对待那些本来就数量稀少、分布区狭窄的物种和那些由于人类活动而导致其种群数量与生境面积急剧下降的物种?(2)不同的动物类群能否应用同一濒危标准尺度?(3)如何区别对待物种边缘分布区和核心分布区的种群数量与密度的差异?(4)如何处理种群的局部灭绝、局部濒危?(5)一些濒危物种在野生环境中濒危,但是这些物种可以人工繁殖,如何处理可以人工繁殖的濒危物种?(6)如果没有种群与栖息地的精确历史资料和统计数据,怎样应用物种的濒危标准评估其濒危等级?在实践中,我们针对这些问题提出了解决方案。考虑与国际流行的IUCN物种濒危等级标准接轨,我们提出来一个由“无危”、“值得关注”、“受胁”、“濒危”和“灭绝”等5个级构成的濒危等级系统,其中“值得关注”、“受胁”、“濒危”又分为“一般”与“高度”两个亚等级。我们提出应区分“生态濒危物种”、“进化濒危物种”;对于不同生物类群,应区分物种的生活史对策,制定不同生活史物种的濒危标准。对于r-对策物种,引入“经济灭绝”这一等级,将这一等级对应于“受胁”等级,以解决缺少物种数量的统计数据和历史数据这一难题;区别对待特有物种,将其濒危等级提升一等;引进集合种群(metapopulation)概念,将集合种群的局域种群(local population)作为“个体”对待。     

The use of spatial ecological modelling as a tool for improving the assessment of geographic range size of threatened species

We analysed endemic threatened tree and reptile species of Socotra Island (Yemen), characterised by different ecological requirements and spatial distribution, in order to evaluate the usefulness of spatial ecological modelling in the estimation of species extent of occurrence (EOO) and area of occupancy (AOO). Point occurrences for the entire species range were used to model their spatial distribution by Random Forest (RF) and Generalised Linear Model (GLM). For each species the suitability area (SA) was obtained by applying the 0% omission error criterion on the probability map, and compared or integrated with EOO and AOO area obtained by topological methods such as the minimum convex polygon (MCP), α-hull and 2 km × 2 km grid.RF showed a lower prediction error than GLM. Higher accuracy was achieved for species with higher number of occurrences and narrower ecological niche. SA was always greater than AOO measured with the 2 km × 2 km grid method. SA was greater than EOO, measured by both MCP and α-hull methods, for species with localised distribution, while it was smaller for widely distributed species. EOO-α-hull area was equal or smaller than that calculated by MCP depending on the spatial distribution of species. AOO measured considering the SA within the EOO-MCP was greater than that measured using the standard 2 km × 2 km grid. Conversely, AOO calculated considering the suitable area within the EOO-α-hull showed variable results, being smaller or greater than the 2 km × 2 km grid AOO depending on the ecological niche and spatial distribution of species. According to our results, SEM does not provide an effective alternative to topological methods for the estimate of EOO and AOO. However, it may be considered a useful tool to estimate AOO within the boundaries of EOO measured by the α-hull method, because it reduces some potential sources of inconsistency and bias.     

Red Lists versus nature protection Acts: new analytical and numerical method to test threat trends

Red Lists are the widest international tool to establish species extinction risks and conservation priorities. Chronological Red Lists comparisons have proved a useful strategy to assess biodiversity loss. Alongside Red Lists, nature protection Acts have been enacted in most countries. The information transposition from Red Lists to Acts would be the logical sequence. However, the similarities between these (Red Lists—Acts) have never been analyzed. In this study, an innovative method based on IUCN categories is proposed to easily compare biodiversity protection catalogs. This international method could use data from any taxonomic group, area or date. Firstly, a matrix method was implemented which objectively weighs taxa threat degree, and incorporates a statistical significance value after catalog comparisons. Moreover, each catalog threat category trends are assessed through an analysis of their temporal evolution and the threat types of species categories. Thereby, the relationship between scientists’ Red Lists, and nature protection legislation enacted by governments can be established. A study performed from such perspective could provide useful tools for integrating and comparing information from different sources. This study was located in Andalusia (Spain), a hot spot with a long tradition in flora conservation, where a vast amount of information about this subject has been published. Cluster analysis results showed that catalog typology was the most influential feature in clustering, rather than the publication date or the geographical framework. The results also supported that the expected relationship between Red Lists and Acts was not consistent, and demonstrated that threat categories included in catalogs had oftentimes contradictory trends.     

Comparing IUCN and Probabilistic Assessments of Threat: Do IUCN Red List Criteria Conflate Rarity and Threat?

Estimates of threat form an intrinsic element of World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List criteria, and in the assignment of species to defined threat categories. However, assignment under the IUCN criteria is demanding in terms of the amount of information that is required. For many species adequate data are lacking. Further, many of the terms and parameters used under IUCN criteria are subjective and open to varying interpretations. During the last decade a number of probabilistic statistical models have been developed which use historical sighting data, such as herbarium and museum collections, to generate objective, quantitative inference of threat and extinction without the requirement for extensive formal survey procedures and where little or no other data exists. In this study these statistical models were applied to herbarium data for the genus Guzmania (Bromeliaceae) from Ecuador. The results suggest that, for species for which collection records are adequate, these methods can be of use in strengthening IUCN Red List assessment procedure. Further, these methods present a unique means of prioritising threat when few biological data are available.     

Risk of extinction of plant communities: Risk and assessment categories

There are many proposals for the assessment of plant communities, based on different criteria, but very few proposals for categorization of the risk of extinction of plant communities (syntaxa). In this paper, concepts related to extent of occurence (EOO), area of occupancy (AOO), extinction and regeneration of plant communities are defined. Also, we propose and define several ranks of extinction risk based on quantitative criteria of the EOO, AOO and processes of decline. The proposals are global, for application to any type of cormophytic vegetation, without geographical restrictions. To check the adequacy of the proposed ranks and its thresholds, the method has been applied to the vegetation of the Iberian Peninsula based on the EOO (122 plant communities) and the AOO (2224 plant communities).     

Scale dependency and area of occupancy: Tortula freibergii in north-west England

Abstract

Area of occupancy (AOO) is used commonly as a measure of species range size and the IUCN Red List Criteria provide thresholds of AOO for determining the extinction risk of species. Tortula freibergii is a rare moss globally and is considered to be a priority for conservation in the UK. This study provides the results of a comprehensive survey of the distribution of the species in north-west England, at a linear resolution of 0.5 km, which shows it to be considerably more widespread than understood previously. The data are used to create a 'species-area curve' that spans the scales of 0.1 to 10 km and examine how measures of AOO change according to the scale of measurement. AOO values declined sharply as the scale of measurement reduced, as a result of the linear and frequently fragmented distribution of the species. Implications for the application of the IUCN Red List Criteria and the monitoring of species are discussed.     

A conservation assessment of the freshwater crabs of southern Africa (Brachyura: Potamonautidae)

Recent taxonomic revisions of the freshwater crabs of southern Africa (Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe) allow accurate depictions of their diversity, distribution patterns and conservation status. The southern African region is home to nineteen species of freshwater crabs all belonging to the genus Potamonautes (family Potamonautidae). These crabs show high levels of species endemism (84%) to the southern African region and to the country of South Africa (74%). The conservation status of each species is assessed using the IUCN (2003) Red List criteria, based on detailed compilations of the majority of known specimens. The results indicate that one species should be considered vulnerable, fifteen species least concern and three species data deficient. The results have been utilized by the IUCN for Red Lists, and may prove useful when developing a conservation strategy for southern Africa’s endemic freshwater crab fauna.     

Conservation study of endemic plants in serpentine landscapes: Antirrhinum rothmaleri (Plantaginaceae), a serpentinophyte with a restricted geographic distribution

Abstract

Assessing the conservation status of endemic species by monitoring population trends is one of the main aims of plant conservation studies. This article reports a detailed study of the distribution of Antirrhinum rothmaleri, a species endemic to the serpentine systems of Trás-os-Montes in NE Portugal (Lusitan-Duriensean biogeographical sector). The species' current distribution status, the size of its populations, and the threats it faces, measured according to International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 2008 Guidelines, were all assessed. The size estimates provided for the four confirmed populations were based on census data taken at the different sites. All censuses were performed by direct counting of all potentially reproductive individuals. Based on the present data, A. rothmaleri should be assigned a conservation status of “Critically Endangered” (CR). Its conservation status, according to the IUCN criteria, is mainly based on the narrow distribution, and on the area of occupancy (AOO) and extent of occurrence (EOO). The risk of extinction faced by the local populations is high due to their typically very small size. Suitable conservation strategies should be developed in order to preserve the species. The present study allowed us to characterize its distribution and population size, to collect and store ex situ the germplasm in the UIRGEMP/Banco Português de Germoplasma Vegetal, and to investigate its ecology. The conservation status of the species requires continued monitoring of the demography of its populations. Studies on the biology of the species are also needed in order to improve its management. The present results illustrate the need to protect serpentine landscapes, which contain a range of microhabitats inhabited byendemic plants.     

Palm economic and traditional uses,evolutionary history and the IUCN Red List

The growing demand for natural resources to sustain human population has increased the loss and modification of natural habitats, enhancing the number of species threatened with extinction. Commonly tools such as Red Lists guide conservation actions and policies. However, Red Lists are based in population parameters, and important aspects of biodiversity such as phylogenetic diversity are not considered. Here we evaluated the amount of economic and traditional uses and evolutionary history of palms captured by the global IUCN Red List and the national Red Lists of Colombia and Madagascar. We estimated palms plant use diversity (PUD) and phylogenetic diversity (PD) for all species in the IUCN Red List and for each threat category at global and national scale. We also investigated if the number of uses, PUD and PD predict palm threat level. Species covered by IUCN Red List have lower PUD and PD than expected by chance. At global scale, palms with higher extinction risk have lower number of uses, PUD and PD. However, whereas in Colombia least concern species had lower PUD and PD, in Madagascar only Data Deficient species had lower PUD than expected by chance. Our findings highlight the need of palm specialists to expand the list of palms they have assessed and submit them for inclusion in Red Lists, enabling Red Lists to capture a more random sample of palm evolutionary history and economic uses. That would improve the success of biodiversity conservation actions by taking into account other aspects of biodiversity rather than taxonomic identity.     

Spatial ecology and conservation of the microendemic ovenbird Cipo Cinclodes (Cinclodes espinhacensis) from the Brazilian highlands

Birds in the genus Cinclodes are habitat specialists, with most restricted to the highlands of South America. The recently described Cipo Cinclodes (C. espinhacensis) is isolated in the southern Espinhaço Range of Brazil and is considered Endangered in Brazil and Near Threatened by the IUCN, but as a subspecies of Long‐tailed Cinclodes (C. pabsti). We examined the population and spatial ecology of Cipo Cinclodes at two geographic scales to improve our understanding of their basic biology and conservation status. We monitored 30 birds at Serra do Breu and found relatively large home ranges (mean = 9.3 ha), a density of paired adults of 0.09/ha, a male‐skewed adult sex ratio (males/total adults = 0.57) due to territories occupied by unpaired males, and long‐term site fidelity. Cipo Cinclodes used all habitat types available in our study area, including rocky outcrops, grasslands, and riparian areas, but habitat selection analyses revealed the importance of riparian areas for foraging and rocky outcrops for nesting. At the species distribution scale, we compiled known and novel recorded occurrence points and used them to calculate the extent of occurrence (EOO) and the area of occupancy (AOO). We used a Maxent species distribution model to generate a binary map to estimate upper limits for EOO (EOO around the model predicted area) and AOO (comprised by the model predicted area within the EOO). We obtained 41 locations, resulting in an EOO of 890.7 km² (up to 1748.7 km²) and an AOO of 100 km² (up to 327.5 km²). The global population is estimated to be between 880 and 2882 birds, which is concerning because small populations are at risk of extinction due to demographic stochasticity, genetic drift, and the interaction of these factors. As such, our results support the designation of Cipo Cinclodes as Endangered on the Brazilian red list.     

Can the IUCN criteria be effectively applied to peripheral isolated plant populations?

The IUCN criteria 2001 are considered one of the best methods to evaluate species extinction risk at the global and regional levels. The aim of this work is to test the applicability of the IUCN criteria to peripheral isolated plant populations (PIPPs). PIPPs have been a topic of scientific debate in Conservation Biology for about 15 years and international conventions such as ESPC address the issue of their conservation. Conservation measures often rely on Red Lists based on IUCN criteria, but there is little evidence supporting their application to PIPPs. In this work, we tested the hypothesis that PIPPs’ intrinsic restricted range and rarity lead to the overestimation of their extinction risk. We compared and analyzed four IUCN criteria (A, B, C, D), considering 17 species with PIPPs in different Italian administrative regions. Special attention must be given to the spatial scale at which PIPPs are assessed, the evaluation of the threats affecting the populations, and their decline. PIPPs should not be assessed within political boundaries and we propose a new area designation that better corresponds to the characteristics of PIPPs. Criterion B is strongly biased by restricted range and overestimates the extinction risk of PIPPs, particularly when the population decline is only suspected and not observed. In this case, criterion D more accurately assesses the status of PIPPs. Criterion A is also suitable for assessing PIPPs, because it is not affected by their phytogeographic rarity. The proposed statements could also be valid for the global assessment of narrow endemic species.     

How threatened are alpine environments? a cross taxonomic study

Cold-adapted ecosystems are often considered to be stable, species poor, and well protected. However, such ecosystems have been identified as being especially sensitive to threats from global warming. Despite this, recent studies have found low proportions of Red Listed species in these systems. In this study we explored the number of alpine species (dependent on alpine habitats for their survival) and their Red List status in Sweden. We determined the proportion of Red Listed species and explored discrepancies among different groups of organisms in terms of the proportion of Red Listed species and the criteria used for Red Listing. We found a total of 389 alpine species in twelve analyzed species groups. The overall proportion of Red Listed species was 29%, with 15% regarded as threatened. There were substantial differences among taxonomic groups with respect to the proportion of Red Listed species. Among mammals 75% of the species are Red Listed, along with 63% of butterflies and 50% of birds. In addition the single alpine dragonfly species and all three alpine stinging wasp species are also Red Listed. Although beetles, bumblebees and grasshoppers are represented by a total of 17 alpine species, none are Red Listed. In contrast to previous studies, our results show that the proportion of Red Listed species is high in alpine environments, indicating that ecosystems found above the tree line are indeed threatened. No species in Sweden have been Red Listed on the basis of the IUCN criterion E (unfavorable quantitative analysis), this is surprising since entire cold-adapted ecosystems are likely to disappear in the future. We highlight the need for a better and more coordinated application of the IUCN criteria, as well as a more stringent strategy to assess the extinction risks for alpine species, thus maintaining reliable Red Lists.     

长白山高山苔原带植物濒危现状及保护级别评估

通过野外调查、文献查阅、专家咨询及市场调查等手段获得长白山高山苔原带植物生存状况、分布数量的基本数据。在查阅文献的基础上,借助专家咨询构建了长白山高山苔原带植物受危等级、优先保护定量评估体系。该体系包含3个子系统,每个子系统下设不同指标共计12个。通过专家咨询法和层次分析法相结合的方法确定各子系统及各指标的权重。共评估植物94种,其中极危种3种,濒危种6种,易危种22种,近危种42种,无危种21种;在保护的缓急程度上,属于特级保护的有5种,一级保护的有6种,二级保护的有34种,三级保护的有30种,暂缓保护的有19种。评估结果与以往的红色名录进行了比较,一些从未列入红色目录的种类在本研究结果中有所体现。相反,有些曾被列入红色名录的物种在本次评估中被列为"无危"。对评估结果与以往红色名录之间产生差异种类及原因进行了讨论。     

Comparing and contrasting threat assessments of plant species at the global and sub-global level

Evidence-based assessments of extinction risk are established tools used to inform the conservation of plant species, and form the basis of key targets within the framework of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC). An overall picture of plants threat assessments is challenging due to the use of a variety of methodologies and range in scope from global to subnational. In this study, we quantify the state of progress in assessing the extinction risk of all land plants, determine the key geographic and taxonomic gaps with respect to our understanding of plant extinction risk, and evaluate the impact of different sources and methodologies on the utility of plant assessments. To this end, we have analyzed a cleaned dataset compiled from IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and Regional Red Lists. We reveal that there are assessments available for 89,810 distinct species or 25% of all accepted land plant species. However unlike with other major organismal lineages the bulk of the plant species assessments are derived from Regional Red Lists, and not the Global IUCN Red List. We demonstrate that this bias towards regional assessments results in distinct taxonomic and geographic strengths and weaknesses, and we identify substantial taxonomic and geographic gaps in the assessment coverage. With species that have been assessed in common at both global and regional levels, we explore the implications of combining threat assessments from different sources. We find that half of global and regional assessments do not agree on the exact category of extinction risk for a species. Regional assessments assign a higher risk of extinction; or underestimate extinction risk with almost equal frequency. We conclude with recommended interventions, but support the suggestion that all threat assessments should be pooled to provide more data and broaden the scope of threat assessments for monitoring progress towards GSPC targets.