Discrete and overlapping functions of peptidoglycan synthases in growth,cell division and virulence of Listeria monocytogenes

Upon ingestion of contaminated food, Listeria monocytogenes can cause serious infections in humans that are normally treated with β‐lactam antibiotics. These target Listeria's five high molecular weight penicillin‐binding proteins (HMW PBPs), which are required for peptidoglycan biosynthesis. The two bi‐functional class A HMW PBPs PBP A1 and PBP A2 have transglycosylase and transpeptidase domains catalyzing glycan chain polymerization and peptide cross‐linking, respectively, whereas the three class B HMW PBPs B1, B2 and B3 are monofunctional transpeptidases. The precise roles of these PBPs in the cell cycle are unknown. Here we show that green fluorescent protein (GFP)‐PBP fusions localized either at the septum, the lateral wall or both, suggesting distinct and overlapping functions. Genetic data confirmed this view: PBP A1 and PBP A2 could not be inactivated simultaneously, and a conditional double mutant strain is largely inducer dependent. PBP B1 is required for rod‐shape and PBP B2 for cross‐wall biosynthesis and viability, whereas PBP B3 is dispensable for growth and cell division. PBP B1 depletion dramatically increased β‐lactam susceptibilities and stimulated spontaneous autolysis but had no effect on peptidoglycan cross‐linkage. Our in vitro virulence assays indicated that the complete set of all HMW PBPs is required for maximal virulence.     

Mutations affecting penicillin-binding proteins 2a, 2b and 3 in Bacillus subtilis alter cell shape and peptidoglycan metabolism

Bacillus subtilis mutants with altered penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), or altered expression of PBPs, were isolated by screening for changes in susceptibility to beta-lactam antibiotics. Mutations affecting only PBPs 2a, 2b and 3 were isolated. Cell shape and peptidoglycan metabolism were examined in representative mutants. Cells of a PBP 2a mutant (UB8521) were usually twisted whereas PBP 2b (UB8524) and 3 (UB8525) mutants produced helices, particularly after growth at 41 degrees C. The PBP 2a mutant (UB8521) had a higher peptidoglycan synthetic activity than its parent strain whereas the opposite applied to the PBP 2b mutant UB8524. The PBP 3 mutant (UB8525) had a similar peptidoglycan synthetic activity to that of the parent strain when grown at 37 degrees C, but 40% higher activity after growth at 41 degrees C. The PBP 2a mutant (UB8521) exhibited the same wall thickening activity as the parent, but the PBP 2b and 3 mutants (UB8524 and UB8525) were partially defective in this respect. The changes in the susceptibility of PBP 2a, 2b and 3 mutants to beta-lactam antibiotics imply that these PBPs are killing targets, consistent with the fact that these PBPs are also important for shape determination and peptidoglycan synthesis.     

Stimulation of PgdA‐dependent peptidoglycan N‐deacetylation by GpsB‐PBP A1 in Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes and other pathogenic bacteria modify their peptidoglycan to protect it against enzymatic attack through the host innate immune system, such as the cell wall hydrolase lysozyme. During our studies on GpsB, a late cell division protein that controls activity of the bi‐functional penicillin binding protein PBP A1, we discovered that GpsB influences lysozyme resistance of L. monocytogenes as mutant strains lacking gpsB showed an increased lysozyme resistance. Deletion of pbpA1 corrected this effect, demonstrating that PBP A1 is also involved in this. Susceptibility to lysozyme mainly depends on two peptidoglycan modifying enzymes: The peptidoglycan N‐deacetylase PgdA and the peptidoglycan O‐acetyltransferase OatA. Genetic and biochemical experiments consistently demonstrated that the increased lysozyme resistance of the ΔgpsB mutant was PgdA‐dependent and OatA‐independent. Protein‐protein interaction studies supported the idea that GpsB, PBP A1 and PgdA form a complex in L. monocytogenes and identified the regions in PBP A1 and PgdA required for complex formation. These results establish a physiological connection between GpsB, PBP A1 and the peptidoglycan modifying enzyme PgdA. To our knowledge, this is the first reported link between a GpsB‐like cell division protein and factors important for escape from the host immune system.     

Restoration of vegetative penicillin-binding proteins during germination and outgrowth of Bacillus subtilis spores: relationship of individual proteins to specific cell cycle events.

The order in which the vegetative penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) are first synthesized and the rate of their return to normal levels during germination and outgrowth of Bacillus subtilis spores were determined. The rate of synthesis of most of the PBPs was much faster than that of the majority of other membrane proteins, which is consistent with the involvement of PBPs in biosynthesis of the rapidly expanding peptidoglycan. The pattern of PBP changes that occurred during the cell cycle, including sporulation, suggests a likely role for PBP 2A in cell elongation and a unique requirement for PBP 2B during both symmetric and asymmetric septum formation. PBP 3 is the only PBP that appears to be equally necessary for vegetative and cortical peptidoglycan synthesis.     

Control of cell shape and elongation by the rodA gene in Bacillus subtilis

The Escherichia coli rodA and ftsW genes and the spoVE gene of Bacillus subtilis encode membrane proteins that control peptidoglycan synthesis during cellular elongation, division and sporulation respectively. While rodA and ftsW are essential genes in E. coli , the B. subtilis spoVE gene is dispensable for growth and is only required for the synthesis of the spore cortex peptidoglycan. In this work, we report on the characterization of a B. subtilis gene, designated rodA , encoding a homologue of E. coli RodA. We found that the growth of a B. subtilis strain carrying a fusion of rodA to the IPTG-inducible P_spac promoter is inducer dependent. Limiting concentrations of inducer caused the formation of spherical cells, which eventually lysed. An increase in the level of IPTG induced a sphere-to-short rod transition that re-established viability. Higher levels of inducer restored normal cell length. Staining of the septal or polar cap peptidoglycan by a fluorescent lectin was unaffected during growth of the mutant under restrictive conditions. Our results suggest that rodA functions in maintaining the rod shape of the cell and that this function is essential for viability. In addition, RodA has an irreplaceable role in the extension of the lateral walls of the cell. Electron microscopy observations support these conclusions. The ultrastructural analysis further suggests that the growth arrest that accompanies loss of the rod shape is caused by the cell's inability to construct a division septum capable of spanning the enlarged cell. RodA is similar over its entire length to members of a large protein family (SEDS, for shape, elongation, division and sporulation). Members of the SEDS family are probably present in all eubacteria that synthesize peptidoglycan as part of their cell envelope.     

Analysis of peptidoglycan structure from vegetative cells of Bacillus subtilis 168 and role of PBP 5 in peptidoglycan maturation.

The composition and fine structure of the vegetative cell wall peptidoglycan from Bacillus subtilis were determined by analysis of its constituent muropeptides. The structures of 39 muropeptides, representing 97% of the total peptidoglycan, were elucidated. About 99% analyzed muropeptides in B. subtilis vegetative cell peptidoglycan have the free carboxylic group of diaminopimelic acid amidated. Anhydromuropeptides and products missing a glucosamine at the nonreducing terminus account for 0.4 and 1.5%, respectively, of the total muropeptides. These two types of muropeptides are suggested to end glycan strands. An unexpected feature of B. subtilis muropeptides was the occurrence of a glycine residue in position 5 of the peptide side chain on monomers or oligomers, which account for 2.7% of the total muropeptides. This amount is, however, dependent on the composition of the growth media. Potential attachment sites for anionic polymers to peptidoglycan occur on dominant muropeptides and account for 2.1% of the total. B. subtilis peptidoglycan is incompletely digested by lysozyme due to de-N-acetylation of glucosamine, which occurs on 17.3% of muropeptides. The cross-linking index of the polymer changes with the growth phase. It is highest in late stationary phase, with a value of 33.2 or 44% per muramic acid residue, as determined by reverse-phase high-pressure liquid chromatography or gel filtration, respectively. Analysis of the muropeptide composition of a dacA (PBP 5) mutant shows a dramatic decrease of muropeptides with tripeptide side chains and an increase or appearance of muropeptides with pentapeptide side chains in monomers or oligomers. The total muropeptides with pentapeptide side chains accounts for almost 82% in the dacA mutant. This major low-molecular-weight PBP (DD-carboxypeptidase) is suggested to play a role in peptidoglycan maturation.     

The Rcs Stress Response and Accessory Envelope Proteins Are Required for De Novo Generation of Cell Shape in Escherichia coli

Interactions with immune responses or exposure to certain antibiotics can remove the peptidoglycan wall of many Gram-negative bacteria. Though the spheroplasts thus created usually lyse, some may survive by resynthesizing their walls and shapes. Normally, bacterial morphology is generated by synthetic complexes directed by FtsZ and MreBCD or their homologues, but whether these classic systems can recreate morphology in the absence of a preexisting template is unknown. To address this question, we treated Escherichia coli with lysozyme to remove the peptidoglycan wall while leaving intact the inner and outer membranes and periplasm. The resulting lysozyme-induced (LI) spheroplasts recovered a rod shape after four to six generations. Recovery proceeded via a series of cell divisions that produced misshapen and branched intermediates before later progeny assumed a normal rod shape. Importantly, mutants defective in mounting the Rcs stress response and those lacking penicillin binding protein 1B (PBP1B) or LpoB could not divide or recover their cell shape but instead enlarged until they lysed. LI spheroplasts from mutants lacking the Lpp lipoprotein or PBP6 produced spherical daughter cells that did not recover a normal rod shape or that did so only after a significant delay. Thus, to regenerate normal morphology de novo, E. coli must supplement the classic FtsZ- and MreBCD-directed cell wall systems with activities that are otherwise dispensable for growth under normal laboratory conditions. The existence of these auxiliary mechanisms implies that they may be required for survival in natural environments, where bacterial walls can be damaged extensively or removed altogether.     

A mother cell-specific class B penicillin-binding protein, PBP4b, in Bacillus subtilis

The Bacillus subtilis genome encodes 16 penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), some of which are involved in synthesis of the spore peptidoglycan. The pbpI (yrrR) gene encodes a class B PBP, PBP4b, and is transcribed in the mother cell by RNA polymerase containing sigma(E). Loss of PBP4b, alone and in combination with other sporulation-specific PBPs, had no effect on spore peptidoglycan structure.     

Septal and lateral wall localization of PBP5, the major D,D‐carboxypeptidase of Escherichia coli,requires substrate recognition and membrane attachment

The distribution of PBP5, the major D,D‐carboxypeptidase in Escherichia coli, was mapped by immunolabelling and by visualization of GFP fusion proteins in wild‐type cells and in mutants lacking one or more D,D‐carboxypeptidases. In addition to being scattered around the lateral envelope, PBP5 was also concentrated at nascent division sites prior to visible constriction. Inhibiting PBP2 activity (which eliminates wall elongation) shifted PBP5 to midcell, whereas inhibiting PBP3 (which aborts divisome invagination) led to the creation of PBP5 rings at positions of preseptal wall formation, implying that PBP5 localizes to areas of ongoing peptidoglycan synthesis. A PBP5(S44G) active site mutant was more evenly dispersed, indicating that localization required enzyme activity and the availability of pentapeptide substrates. Both the membrane bound and soluble forms of PBP5 converted pentapeptides to tetrapeptides in vitro and in vivo, and the enzymes accepted the same range of substrates, including sacculi, Lipid II, muropeptides and artificial substrates. However, only the membrane‐bound form localized to the developing septum and restored wild‐type rod morphology to shape defective mutants, suggesting that the two events are related. The results indicate that PBP5 localization to sites of ongoing peptidoglycan synthesis is substrate dependent and requires membrane attachment.     

Peptidoglycan synthesis in the absence of class A penicillin-binding proteins in Bacillus subtilis

Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) catalyze the final, essential reactions of peptidoglycan synthesis. Three classes of PBPs catalyze either trans-, endo-, or carboxypeptidase activities on the peptidoglycan peptide side chains. Only the class A high-molecular-weight PBPs have clearly demonstrated glycosyltransferase activities that polymerize the glycan strands, and in some species these proteins have been shown to be essential. The Bacillus subtilis genome sequence contains four genes encoding class A PBPs and no other genes with similarity to their glycosyltransferase domain. A strain lacking all four class A PBPs has been constructed and produces a peptidoglycan wall with only small structural differences from that of the wild type. The growth rate of the quadruple mutant is much lower than those of strains lacking only three of the class A PBPs, and increases in cell length and frequencies of wall abnormalities were noticeable. The viability and wall production of the quadruple-mutant strain indicate that a novel enzyme can perform the glycosyltransferase activity required for peptidoglycan synthesis. This activity was demonstrated in vitro and shown to be sensitive to the glycosyltransferase inhibitor moenomycin. In contrast, the quadruple-mutant strain was resistant to moenomycin in vivo. Exposure of the wild-type strain to moenomycin resulted in production of a phenotype similar to that of the quadruple mutant.     

Crystal structure of the Bacillus subtilis penicillin-binding protein 4a, and its complex with a peptidoglycan mimetic peptide

The genome of Bacillus subtilis encodes 16 penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) involved in the synthesis and/or remodelling of the peptidoglycan during the complex life cycle of this sporulating Gram-positive rod-shaped bacterium. PBP4a (encoded by the dacC gene) is a low-molecular mass PBP clearly exhibiting in vitro DD-carboxypeptidase activity. We have solved the crystal structure of this protein alone and in complex with a peptide (D-alpha-aminopymelyl-epsilon-D-alanyl-D-alanine) that mimics the C-terminal end of the Bacillus peptidoglycan stem peptide. PBP4a is composed of three domains: the penicillin-binding domain with a fold similar to the class A beta-lactamase structure and two domains inserted between the conserved motifs 1 and 2 characteristic of the penicillin-recognizing enzymes. The soaking of PBP4a in a solution of D-alpha-aminopymelyl-epsilon-D-alanyl-D-alanine resulted in an adduct between PBP4a and a D-alpha-aminopimelyl-epsilon-D-alanine dipeptide and an unbound D-alanine, i.e. the products of acylation of PBP4a by D-alpha-aminopymelyl-epsilon-D-alanyl-D-alanine with the release of a D-alanine. The adduct also reveals a binding pocket specific to the diaminopimelic acid, the third residue of the peptidoglycan stem pentapeptide of B. subtilis. This pocket is specific for this class of PBPs.     

The YvcK protein is required for morphogenesis via localization of PBP1 under gluconeogenic growth conditions in Bacillus subtilis

The YvcK protein was previously shown to be dispensable when B. subtilis cells are grown on glycolytic carbon sources but essential for growth and normal shape on gluconeogenic carbon sources. Here, we report that YvcK is localized as a helical-like pattern in the cell. This localization seems independent of the actin-like protein, MreB. A YvcK overproduction restores a normal morphology in an mreB mutant strain when bacteria are grown on PAB medium. Reciprocally, an additional copy of mreB restores a normal growth and morphology in a yvcK mutant strain when bacteria are grown on a gluconeogenic carbon source like gluconate. Furthermore, as already observed for the mreB mutant, the deletion of the gene encoding the penicillin-binding protein PBP1 restores growth and normal shape of a yvcK mutant on gluconeogenic carbon sources. The PBP1 is delocalized in an mreB mutant grown in the absence of magnesium and in a yvcK mutant grown on gluconate medium. Interestingly, its proper localization can be rescued by YvcK overproduction. Therefore, in gluconeogenic growth conditions, YvcK is required for the correct localization of PBP1 and hence for displaying a normal rod shape.     

Two class A high-molecular-weight penicillin-binding proteins of Bacillus subtilis play redundant roles in sporulation.

The four class A penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) of Bacillus subtilis appear to play functionally redundant roles in polymerizing the peptidoglycan (PG) strands of the vegetative-cell and spore walls. The ywhE product was shown to bind penicillin, so the gene and gene product were renamed pbpG and PBP2d, respectively. Construction of mutant strains lacking multiple class A PBPs revealed that, while PBP2d plays no obvious role in vegetative-wall synthesis, it does play a role in spore PG synthesis. A pbpG null mutant produced spore PG structurally similar to that of the wild type; however, electron microscopy revealed that in a significant number of these spores the PG did not completely surround the spore core. In a pbpF pbpG double mutant this spore PG defect was apparent in every spore produced, indicating that these two gene products play partially redundant roles. A normal amount of spore PG was produced in the double mutant, but it was frequently produced in large masses on either side of the forespore. The double-mutant spore PG had structural alterations indicative of improper cortex PG synthesis, including twofold decreases in production of muramic delta-lactam and L-alanine side chains and a slight increase in cross-linking. Sporulation gene expression in the pbpF pbpG double mutant was normal, but the double-mutant spores failed to reach dormancy and subsequently degraded their spore PG. We suggest that these two forespore-synthesized PBPs are required for synthesis of the spore germ cell wall, the first layer of spore PG synthesized on the surface of the inner forespore membrane, and that in the absence of the germ cell wall the cells lack a template needed for proper synthesis of the spore cortex, the outer layers of spore PG, by proteins on the outer forespore membrane.     

Partial functional redundancy of MreB isoforms, MreB, Mbl and MreBH, in cell morphogenesis of Bacillus subtilis

MreB proteins are bacterial actin homologues thought to have a role in cell shape determination by positioning the cell wall synthetic machinery. Many bacteria, particularly Gram-positives, have more than one MreB isoform. Bacillus subtilis has three, MreB, Mbl and MreBH, which colocalize in a single helical structure. We now show that the helical pattern of peptidoglycan (PG) synthesis in the cylindrical part of the rod-shaped cell is governed by the redundant action of the three MreB isoforms. Single mutants for any one of mreB isoforms can still incorporate PG in a helical pattern and generate a rod shape. However, after depletion of MreB in an mbl mutant (or depletion of all three isoforms) lateral wall PG synthesis was impaired and the cells became spherical and lytic. Overexpression of any one of the MreB isoforms overcame the lethality as well as the defects in lateral PG synthesis and cell shape. Furthermore, MreB and Mbl can associate with the peptidoglycan biosynthetic machinery independently. However, no single MreB isoform was able to support normal growth under various stress conditions, suggesting that the multiple isoforms are used to allow cells to maintain proper growth and morphogenesis under changing and sometimes adverse conditions.     

Synthesis of peptidoglycan by high molecular weight penicillin-binding proteins of Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus stearothermophilus

The high molecular weight penicillin-binding proteins (PBP(s) ) Bacillus subtilis PBPs 1, 2, and 4 and Bacillus stearothermophilus PBPs 1-4 were shown to catalyze peptidoglycan synthesis from the undecaprenol-containing lipid intermediate substrate in two assay systems. In a filter paper assay system, high levels of substrate polymerization occurred when reaction mixtures were incubated on Whatman 3MM filter paper. The pH optimum for peptidoglycan synthesis was 7.5 for B. subtilis PBPs 1, 2, and 4 and 8.5 for B. stearothermophilus PBPs 1-4. Polymerization was Mg2+-independent and was unaffected by sulfhydryl reagents. Reconstitution with membrane lipids or addition of detergent (optimal concentration, 0.1%) was necessary for synthesis to occur. Bacitracin, penicillin, and cephalothin did not affect polymerization while vancomycin, ristocetin, moenomycin, and macarbomycin were strong inhibitors. In a test tube assay system, optimal synthesis occurred either in the presence of 10% ethylene glycol, 10% glycerol, and 8% methanol or in the presence of 10% N-acetylglucosamine. The products of lysozyme digestion of the synthesized peptidoglycan were analyzed by gel filtration and paper chromatography. B. stearothermophilus PBPs 1-4 synthesized a peptidoglycan product that was 5-7% cross-linked. No evidence for cross-linking was apparent in the peptidoglycan product of B. subtilis PBPs 1, 2, and 4.     

Approaching the physiological functions of penicillin-binding proteins in Escherichia coli

A rigid shell of peptidoglycan encases and shapes bacteria and is constructed and maintained by a diverse set of enzymes, among which are the penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs). Although a great deal has been learned about how these proteins synthesize and modify peptidoglycan, the physiological functions of the multitude of bacterial PBPs remain enigmatic. We approached this problem by combining PBP mutations in a comprehensive manner and screening for effects on biochemical processes involving the passage of proteins or nucleic acids across the cell wall. The results indicate that the PBPs or their peptidoglycan product do have significant biological functions, including roles in determination of cell shape, in phage resistance, in induction of capsule synthesis, and in regulation of autolysis.     

Characterization of the bifunctional glycosyltransferase/acyltransferase penicillin-binding protein 4 of Listeria monocytogenes

Multimodular penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) are essential enzymes responsible for bacterial cell wall peptidoglycan (PG) assembly. Their glycosyltransferase activity catalyzes glycan chain elongation from lipid II substrate (undecaprenyl-pyrophosphoryl-N-acetylglucosamine-N-acetylmuramic acid-pentapeptide), and their transpeptidase activity catalyzes cross-linking between peptides carried by two adjacent glycan chains. Listeria monocytogenes is a food-borne pathogen which exerts its virulence through secreted and cell wall PG-associated virulence factors. This bacterium has five PBPs, including two bifunctional glycosyltransferase/transpeptidase class A PBPs, namely, PBP1 and PBP4. We have expressed and purified the latter and have shown that it binds penicillin and catalyzes in vitro glycan chain polymerization with an efficiency of 1,400 M(-1) s(-1) from Escherichia coli lipid II substrate. PBP4 also catalyzes the aminolysis (d-Ala as acceptor) and hydrolysis of the thiolester donor substrate benzoyl-Gly-thioglycolate, indicating that PBP4 possesses both transpeptidase and carboxypeptidase activities. Disruption of the gene lmo2229 encoding PBP4 in L. monocytogenes EGD did not have any significant effect on growth rate, peptidoglycan composition, cell morphology, or sensitivity to beta-lactam antibiotics but did increase the resistance of the mutant to moenomycin.     

Identification of pneumococcal proteins that are functionally linked to penicillin‐binding protein 2b (PBP2b)

The oval shape of pneumococci results from a combination of septal and lateral peptidoglycan synthesis. The septal cross‐wall is synthesized by the divisome, while the elongasome drives cell elongation by inserting new peptidoglycan into the lateral cell wall. Each of these molecular machines contains penicillin‐binding proteins (PBPs), which catalyze the final stages of peptidoglycan synthesis, plus a number of accessory proteins. Much effort has been made to identify these accessory proteins and determine their function. In the present paper we have used a novel approach to identify members of the pneumococcal elongasome that are functionally closely linked to PBP2b. We discovered that cells depleted in PBP2b, a key component of the elongasome, display several distinct phenotypic traits. We searched for proteins that, when depleted or deleted, display the same phenotypic changes. Four proteins, RodA, MreD, DivIVA and Spr0777, were identified by this approach. Together with PBP2b these proteins are essential for the normal function of the elongasome. Furthermore, our findings suggest that DivIVA, which was previously assigned as a divisomal protein, is required to correctly localize the elongasome at the negatively curved membrane region between the septal and lateral cell wall.     

The Escherichia coli lov gene product connects peptidoglycan synthesis, ribosomes and growth rate.

Mecillinam, a beta-lactam antibiotic which binds specifically to penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP2), blocks lateral cell-wall elongation, induces spherical morphology and ultimately kills bacteria. We describe here a new mecillinam-resistant mutant of Escherichia coli, the lov mutant. It possesses active PBP2, as evidenced by its rod shape in the absence of mecillinam (but not in its presence), its ability to filament when septation is inhibited, and its penicillin-binding ability. The lov mutant grows slowly but seems to regulate its macromolecular parameters properly: cell volume, RNA content (ribosome concentration), and DNA content are appropriate for the growth rate, and the growth yield is identical to that of wild type. The lov mutation is located at 41 min on the E.coli genetic map and is recessive. Certain rpsL (StrR) mutations suppress the lov mutant's mecillinam resistance. The allele specificity of the suppression suggests that the lov gene product may interact directly with the ribosomes. The lov gene product thus seems to define a link between PBP2 (the mecillinam target) and the ribosomes; we propose that this link is involved in transmitting information on the growth rate (ribosome concentration) to the peptidoglycan synthesizing apparatus.