Lying to Pinocchio: floral deception in an orchid pollinated by long-proboscid flies

Plants that lack floral rewards may nevertheless attract pollinators if their flowers sufficiently resemble those of rewarding plants. Flowers of the South African terrestrial orchid Disa nervosa are similar in floral dimensions and spectral reflectance to those of a sympatric nectar-producing irid ( Watsonia densiflora s.l. ). Observations showed that the orchid and Watsonia share the same pollinator, a long-proboscid tabanid fly Philoliche aethiopica . These flies visited inflorescences of both species during their foraging bouts and most (64%) observed or captured on Watsonia inflorescences carried pollinaria of the orchid on their proboscides. They probe an average of 6.3 flowers on Watsonia inflorescences, but just 1.9 flowers on the Disa inflorescences, a behaviour which would strongly promote cross-pollination in the self-compatible orchid. The orchid generally achieves high levels of pollination success, with approximately 50% of flowers receiving or exporting pollen at some sites. Pollination success was also high at one site that lacked Watsonia plants, suggesting that the orchid does not have an obligate dependence on Watsonia . Its pollination system may therefore be characterized as intermediate between generalized food deception and specific floral mimicry.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 152 , 271–278.     

A supplementary contribution of ants in the pollination of an orchid, Epipactis thunbergii, usually pollinated by hover flies

It has been controversial how extensively ants contribute to pollination, and we evaluated the contribution of the Japanese carpenter ant, Camponotus japonicus, to the pollination of an orchid, Epipactis thunbergii. Two-year field studies revealed that (1) the ant workers foraged even in cool/cloudy conditions and accordingly visited orchid flowers more frequently (about 40% of all the visitors) than hover flies, the principle pollinators (10–20%), and that (2) the flower-visiting ants occasionally removed pollinia from the anther and then delivered pollen onto the stigmatic surface of other flowers, although self-pollination might frequently occur in the consecutive visits of flowers within an inflorescence. An artificial pollination experiment with pollinia which had been transferred to the ant integument showed that (3) the treated flowers produced as many fruits and seeds as control flowers. We concluded that C. japonicus workers could actually pollinate E. thunbergii flowers and their relative importance as pollinators appeared to be largely dependent on the abundance of flower-visiting workers or weather conditions during the flowering period, which mainly determined the availability of hover flies.     

Reproductive biology of Trichocentrum pumilum: an orchid pollinated by oil-collecting bees

The reproductive biology, reward production and pollination mechanism of Trichocentrum pumilum were studied in a gallery forest in the interior of the State of São Paulo, southeast Brazil. The floral visitors and pollination mechanism were recorded, and experimental pollinations were carried out in order to determine the breeding system of this species. Trichocentrum pumilum blooms in spring. Each paniculate inflorescence bears an average of 85 flowers that present a central yellow callus and finger‐like trichomes on the lateral lobes of the lip. A lipoidal substance is produced and stored among these trichomes. In the studied population, T. pumilum is exclusively visited and pollinated by two bee species (Tetrapedia diversipes and Lophopedia nigrispinis). Pollinaria are deposited on mouthparts of bees during collection of the lipoidal substance from the lateral lobes of the labellum. Trichocentrum pumilum is self‐incompatible and pollinator‐limited. Natural fruit set was low (9%, compared to 45% in experimentally cross‐pollinated flowers). Potentially viable seed exceed 97% in fruits obtained through cross‐pollination and in natural conditions (open pollination).     

Floral divergence in closely related Leucospermum tottum (Proteaceae) varieties pollinated by birds and long-proboscid flies

The Proteaceae are renowned for their floral diversity but surprisingly the role of pollinators in driving evolutionary divergence in this family has been underexplored. Here we focus on recently diverged taxa to gain insight into the processes that generate diversity by testing whether two varieties of Leucospermum tottum might have originated by pollinator mediated adaptive divergence. L. tottum var. tottum has pale salmon-coloured horizontally-oriented flowers, long nectar tubes, and small volumes of concentrated nectar. L. tottum var. glabrum has red and yellow vertically oriented flowers, short nectar tubes, and large volumes of dilute nectar. Despite the morphological divergence, the varieties are indistinguishable using eight molecular markers, indicating a very early stage of differentiation. Consistent with their morphologies, L. tottum var. tottum is pollinated by long-proboscid flies (Philoliche rostrata and Philoliche gulosa), Cape sugarbirds (Promerops cafer), and, to a lesser extent, by Orange-breasted sunbirds (Anthobaphes violacea), whereas, L. tottum var. glabrum is pollinated only by Orange-breasted sunbirds. A. violacea visits both varieties, but makes more frequent contact with pollen presenters when foraging on L. tottum var. glabrum. The exclusion of birds caused a steeper reduction in seed production in L. tottum var. glabrum than in L. tottum var. tottum, consistent with specialization for bird-pollination in this variety. Additionally, L. tottum var. glabrum exhibits autogamy, whereas L. tottum var. tottum does not. Floral divergence between the two L. tottum varieties corresponds with divergence in pollinator use.     

Floral biology and histochemical analysis of Vanilla edwallii Hoehne (Orchidaceae: Vanilloideae): an orchid pollinated by Epicharis (Apidae: Centridini)

The genus Vanilla is the most diverse in Vanilloideae, with ca 90 species distributed among tropical regions. Despite their economic importance, studies on pollination of Vanilla are very scarce and data on pollinators of species endemic to Brazil are lacking. Based on fieldwork and laboratory investigations, the floral biology of V. edwallii was studied. The pollinators and pollination process were recorded at the Serra do Japi reserve, state of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil, and the presence of floral reward was also investigated. Vanilla edwallii blooms in summer. The lateral inflorescences produce up to four pale green flowers. The white labellum is united to the base of the column forming a mentum. In the studied population V. edwallii is pollinated by Epicharis (Hoplepicharis) affinis, where the males exhibit a territorial behavior, defending flowers from other possible flower visitors. The pollen is deposited on the scutellum of bees when they abandon the flower. The mentum region is dry, suggesting no nectar production. The only secretory structures are osmophores dispersed on the inner surface of the lip responsible for production of a sweet fragrance, which together with color and morphology of flowers is related to bee attraction. The labellum is rich in mucilaginous cells, while the mucilaginous substance is retained inside the cells. The histochemical analysis also detected the presence of phenolic compounds and starch concentrated mainly at the adaxial surface of the lip and around the vascular bundles.     

Pythiopina,an enigmatic subtribe of darkling beetles (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae: Pedinini): taxonomic revision,microtomography, ecological niche models and phylogenetic position

Morphological, anatomical, and distributional data concerning the S outh A frican endemic beetle subtribe P ythiopina (T enebrionidae: P edinini) are revised. Five species, representing two genera, are recognized. Included in this total is one new species (Meglyphus mariae K amiński sp.n. ). The following species are placed in synonymy: Meglyphus ciliatipes [=Meglyphus calitzensis syn.n. ]; Meglyphus laenoides [=Meglyphus andreaei syn.n. ; =Meglyphus namaqua syn.n. ]. Microtomographic models for all valid P ythiopina species, including the holotype of the newly described species, are presented and analysed. Endoskeleton morphology (specifically characters of the tentorium and metendosternite) proved to be informative at the specific and generic levels. An identification key is provided to all known species of the subtribe. Environmental niche models are presented for the majority of species. A molecular phylogeny of P edinini based on six genetic loci (28S : D 1–D 3 region; 28S : D 4–D 5 region, COII , A rgK , CAD 2, wg) was also produced to explore the phylogenetic position of P ythiopina. This analysis is the first to include representatives of all seven subtribes of P edinini, and supports a sister relationship between P ythiopina and the P alaearctic subtribe D endarina. Results also suggest the existence of a second pair of sister taxa within P edinini (in addition to M elambiina) with an amphitropical A frican distribution. This published work has been registered in ZooBank, http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:285AD87A‐46B1‐4FE9‐BC57‐949EA1F70D49 .     

Floral morphology and pollination in Gastrodia elata,a mycoheterotrophic orchid

Pollination biology in Gastrodia elata was investigated on Rebun Island, Japan. The flowers have an urceolate perianth chamber whose opening is constricted by the column and labellum. This structure plays a crucial role in the selection of small‐bodied bees from flower visitors of various body sizes. In addition, the furrow on the ventral side of the column possibly contributes to the admission of sweat bee pollinators, whose thoracic widths match the width of the furrow. Sweat bees receive the pollinarium on their thorax while escaping head first from the chamber. No pollinator rewards, such as previously reported harvestable spongy tissue, are likely to be produced by the orchid. The flowers, however, have a glossy area reminiscent of nectar secreted into the chamber that likely acts as a deceptive signal for pollinators. Fruit‐set ratios were found to vary spatiotemporally; the values were higher under bright light conditions, probably reflecting the presence of sweat bees for sunny places.     

Screening of Polish Fir Honeydew Honey Using GC/MS,HPLC‐DAD,and Physical‐Chemical Parameters: Benzene Derivatives and Terpenes as Chemical Markers

GC/MS of headspace solid phase micro extraction (HS‐SPME) and solvent extractives along with targeted HPLC‐DAD of Polish fir (Abies alba Mill .) honeydew honey (FHH), were used to determine the chemical profiles and potential markers of botanical origin. Additionally, typical physical‐chemical parameters were also assigned. The values determined for FHH were: conductivity (1.2 mS/cm), water content (16.7 g/100 g), pH (4.5), and CIE chromaticity coordinates (L* = 48.4, a* = 20.6, b* = 69.7, C* = 72.9, and h° = 73.5). FHH contained moderate‐high total phenolic content (533.2 mg GAE/kg) and antioxidant activity (1.1 mmol TEAC/kg) and (3.2 mmol Fe²⁺/kg) in DPPH and FRAP assays. The chemical profiles were dominated by source plant‐originated benzene derivatives: 3,4‐dihydroxybenzoic acid (up to 8.7 mg/kg, HPLC/honey solution), methyl syringate (up to 14.5%, GC/solvent extracts) or benzaldehyde (up to 43.7%, GC/headspace). Other markers were terpenes including norisoprenoid (4‐hydroxy‐3,5,6‐trimethyl‐4‐(3‐oxobut‐1‐enyl)cyclohex‐2‐en‐1‐one, up to 20.3%, GC/solvent extracts) and monoterpenes, mainly linalool derivatives (up to 49%, GC/headspace) as well as borneol (up to 5.9%, GC/headspace). The application of various techniques allowed comprehensive characterisation of FHH. 4‐Hydroxy‐3,5,6‐trimethyl‐4‐(3‐oxobut‐1‐enyl)cyclohex‐2‐en‐1‐one, coniferyl alcohol, borneol, and benzaldehyde were first time proposed for FHH screening. Protocatechuic acid may be a potential marker of FFH regardless of the geographical origin.     

Degradation of Benzene,Toluene and Xylene by Pseudomonas aeruginosa Engineered with the Vitreoscilla Hemoglobin Gene

This study concerns the potential use of Pseudomonas aeruginosa expressing the Vitreoscilla hemoglobin gene for the degradation of important harmful aromatic compounds such as benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX). The use of these compounds by both strains was determined as the production of cell mass (viable cell number) in a minimal medium containing any one of the BTX compounds as the sole carbon and energy source. Furthermore, the BTX degradation capability of both strains was monitored by measuring the production of 3‐methylcatechol, a common intermediate. For the cells of the logarithmic phase, which were grown at high aeration/high agitation or low aeration/low agitation, the engineered strain showed a better growth rate than the host strain. With the benzene in the medium, the recombinant strain exhibited a higher (up to 4‐fold) cell density than the parental wild‐type strain at this phase. In contrast, regarding the cells of the late stationary phase under high aeration/high agitation conditions, the host strain had generally higher viable cell numbers than the recombinant strain. At this phase this difference was, however, less significant under the conditions of low aeration/low agitation. Similarly, in toluene containing medium (at high aeration/high agitation) the recombinant strain showed a higher cell density which was from a 15‐fold to almost one order of magnitude greater than its parental strain during the logarithmic phase where the cell density of P. aeruginosa remained nearly constant. Contrary to the results with benzene and toluene, both strains exhibited similar growth characteristics when they were grown in the presence of xylene. The positive effect of the oxygen uptake by the recombinant system on the BTX metabolizing activity was also apparent in a high accumulation of 3‐methylcatechol in the cultures of the recombinant strain. At certain points of incubation, the hemoglobin expressing strain showed a significantly (p < 0.05) higher 3‐methylcatechol accumulation than the host strain. These results demonstrated the possible potential of the Vitreoscilla hemoglobin as an efficient oxygen uptake system for the bioremediation of some compounds of environmental concern.     

Floral sources used by the orchid bee Euglossa cordata (Linnaeus, 1758) (Apidae: Euglossini) in an urban area of south-eastern Brazil

Although orchid bees (Apidae: Euglossini) are known as key pollinators in tropical ecosystems, knowledge of their floral sources is still scarce, especially for those species commonly found in urban environments. We aimed to identify the pollen, nectar and resin sources used by the widespread species Euglossa cordata in an urban area in south-eastern Brazil. The residual pollen from 81 brood cells of nine nests reactivated between October 2013 and December 2014 was acetolysed and analysed. A total of 50 pollen types belonging to 20 botanical families were identified in the samples. Pollen sources included species from seven families; five of them were plants with poricidal anthers (Bixaceae, Commelinaceae, Fabaceae, Melastomataceae and Solanaceae). The mass-flowering trees Handroanthus chrysotrichus and H. heptaphyllus (Bignoniaceae) are firstly reported as important pollen sources to an orchid bee species. Nectar was collected primarily from plants with long, tubular corolla as Acanthaceae, Apocynaceae, Bignoniaceae and Convolvulaceae. The vine species Dalechampia stipulacea (Euphorbiaceae) acted as a floral resin source. All pollen sources consisted of native plants whereas some exotic plant species were visited for nectar collection. Although nesting in an area encompassed by a high proportion of invasive plant species, Euglossa cordata females preferred to visit native plants to gather floral resources.     

Molecular evidence on the species status and phylogenetic relationships of Spiranthes parksii, an endangered orchid from Texas

New genetic information on the taxonomic status of an endangered species may have strong implications for its continued protection and that of other listed taxa with questionable species status. While analyzing a more comprehensive project on the molecular phylogeny of North American Spiranthes (Orchidaceae), lack of genetic differentiation between endangered S. parksii, endemic only to Texas, and a common local congener, S. cernua, was discovered. To confirm these results in a comparative context, we focused parsimony analyses on a subset of data from local Spiranthes and the same congeners found elsewhere, expanded by additional local samples of the two focal species. Four DNA sequence segments (two chloroplast, one mitochondrial, one nuclear ribosomal) totaling 3191 base pairs were used separately and together to verify that S. parksii is nested within the same clade as S. cernua, and thus likely to be the same species. Our results concur with another recent investigation using AFLP and microsatellite data that also suggests S. parksii is not unique genetically. Therefore, based on empirical data and the phylogenetic species concept, endangered S. parksii is merely an aberrant local phenotype of and a synonym for S. cernua sensu lato. Our results should be considered during the current review of this orchid’s listing status, despite some recent policy changes on consideration of genetic data after listing.     

Medusan morphospace: phylogenetic constraints, biomechanical solutions, and ecological consequences

Abstract. Medusae were the earliest animals to evolve muscle‐powered swimming in the seas. Although medusae have achieved diverse and prominent ecological roles throughout the world's oceans, we argue that the primitive organization of cnidarian muscle tissue limits force production and, hence, the mechanical alternatives for swimming bell function. We use a recently developed model comparing the potential force production with the hydrodynamic requirements of jet propulsion, and conclude that jet production is possible only at relatively small bell diameters. In contrast, production of a more complex wake via what we term rowing propulsion permits much larger sizes but requires a different suite of morphological features. Analysis of morphometric data from all medusan taxa independently confirms size‐dependent patterns of bell forms that correspond with model predictions. Further, morphospace analysis indicates that various lineages within the Medusozoa have proceeded along either of two evolutionary trajectories. The first alternative involved restriction of jet‐propelled medusan bell diameters to small dimensions. These medusae may be either solitary individuals (characteristic of Anthomedusae and Trachymedusae) or aggregates of small individual medusan units into larger colonial forms (characteristic of the nectophores of many members of the Siphonophorae). The second trajectory involved use of rowing propulsion (characteristic of Scyphozoa and some hydromedusan lineages such as the Leptomedusae and Narcomedusae) that allows much larger bell sizes. Convergence on either of the differing propulsive alternatives within the Medusozoa has emerged via parallel evolution among different medusan lineages. The distinctions between propulsive modes have important ecological ramifications because swimming and foraging are interdependent activities for medusae. Rowing swimmers are characteristically cruising predators that select different prey types from those selected by jet‐propelled medusae, which are predominantly ambush predators. These relationships indicate that the different biomechanical solutions to constraints on bell function have entailed ecological consequences that are evident in the prey selection patterns and trophic impacts of contemporary medusan lineages.     

Leaf anatomy of Bruniaceae: ecological, systematic and phylogenetic aspects

CARLQUIST, S., 1991. Leaf anatomy of Bruniaceae: ecological, systematic and phylogenetic aspects. Quantitative and qualitative data are given for 60 species of the 12 genera of Bruniaceae; most data are based on liquid-preserved material. Leaves of Bruniaceae are basically linear (broader forms are probably derived) with an apicula that contains phellogen activity. Most bruniaceous leaves have some degree of isolateral construction, with transition to normal bifacial construction in a few species, but more commonly transition to 'inverse' bifacial structure (stomata on adaxial face, palisade on abaxial face). The latter type is correlated with the tendency for leaves to be appressed to stems. Tannins and very likely other dark-staining materials are very characteristic of mesophyll cells. Six genera have a large strand of fibres on the midvein and rhomboidal crystals in bundle sheath cells. The other six genera have few or no fibres on veins and have druses in mesophyll cells (but not in bundle sheath cells). These distinctions may relate to intrafamilial taxonomy, but they also support the primitive position usually accorded to Audouinia, Thamnea and Tittmannia. A key to genera based on leaf antomy is offered. Details of epidermal cell shape, cuticular relief and trichome form and structure based on scanning electron microscopy are given. Leaf anatomy, combined with other features, favours a relationship between Bruniaceae and Grubbiaceae in particular and in broader contexts allies Bruniaceae to rosalean and possibly hamamelidalean families.     

Floral morphology and reproductive success in the orchid Epipactis helleborine: regional and local across-habitat variation

 The terrestrial orchid Epipactis helleborine is a morphologically variable species with a wide distribution in Europe. It is pollinated by social wasps, and most populations show the morphological characteristics of outcrossing species. However, local predominantly selfing subspecies and varieties have been documented from drier habitats. To document geographic variation in floral morphology, ability to produce seeds through autogamy, and reproductive success in E. helleborine, we sampled 13 populations from three geographic regions along a latitudinal gradient of c. 1000 km from northern to southern Sweden. In the southernmost region, populations in dry and mesic habitats were compared. Supplemental hand-pollination was conducted to determine whether among-population variation in fruit set could be explained by differences in the natural level of pollination, and whether any relationship between floral morphology and fruit production could be explained by interactions with pollinators. Bagging experiments showed no evidence of autogamy in any of the study populations. Number of flowers, pollinia removal and fruit set varied significantly among populations but did not differ among regions. Pollinia removal was positively correlated with population size and both pollinia removal and fruit set were lower in dry than in mesic habitats. At the level of the individual plant, the number of pollinia removed increased more rapidly with flower number than did number of fruits produced. The hand-pollination experiment indicated that the positive relationship between number of flowers and fruit production was due to a higher degree of pollen limitation in plants with few flowers than in plants with many flowers. The experiment also showed that variation in the level of pollen limitation could only partly explain variation in fruit set among populations. Received November 6, 2001; accepted April 27, 2002 Published online: December 3, 2002     

Diffusible and volatile compounds produced by an antagonistic Bacillus subtilis strain cause structural deformations in pathogenic fungi in vitro

An efficient antagonistic strain of Bacillus subtilis, originally isolated from the rhizosphere of established tea bushes, was found to cause structural deformities in six pathogenic fungi under in vitro culture conditions. This effect was attributed to the production of diffusible and volatile antifungal compounds. Out of the selected test fungi four were phytopathogenic, while the remaining two were of clinical importance. The bacterial strain successfully restricted the growth of all test fungi in dual cultures, and induced morphological abnormalities such as mycelial and conidial deviations. The inhibitory effect caused by volatiles was greater than that by diffusible compounds.     

Characterization,expression and phylogenetic study of R2R3-MYB genes in orchid

cDNA fragments representing 21 R2R3-MYB genes were isolated by RT-PCR from the Dendrobiumorchid hybrid Woo Leng. Six full-length cDNA clones were obtained from a flower cDNA library, four of which, DwMYB1, DwMYB2, DwMYB8 and DwMYB10, represent typical plant R2R3-MYB genes. The conceptual DwMYB4 protein is truncated at the C-terminal region and contains the R2 repeat and the N-terminal half of the R3 repeat (R2R3). DwMYB4 expression is restricted to flowers. DwMYB9 contains an 8 amino acid N-terminal deletion in the R2 repeat (R2R3) and is expressed at high levels in mature flower and inflorescence, but at very low levels in young flower buds. DwMYB8 and DwMYB10 show similar expression patterns and share very high sequence similarity in the N-terminal part of the MYB domain. Analysis of amino acid substitution indicated that the pattern and type of substitution between Arabidopsis and maize are quite different. Maize may have more conserved substitution in the MYB^BRH domain than Arabidopsis.     

Deriving ecological relationships from geographical correlations between host and parasitic species: an example with orchid bees

Aim  To investigate biogeographical patterns of cleptoparasitic Exaerete bee species and their orchid bee hosts.
Location  Neotropical region, from Central America to southern Brazil.
Methods  Correlations between relative frequencies of cleptoparasitic Exaerete species and their host Eulaema species were employed to investigate the geographical association between such species pairs.
Results  Our data support the current proposition that the Eulaema meriana / Eulaema flavescens complex is the main host for Exaerete frontalis . Contrary to current belief, however, Eulaema nigrita apparently is not the only and, in some regions, not the most important host for Exaerete smaragdina .
Main conclusions  Current knowledge on cleptoparasite host associations among orchid bees is based on fortuitous observations, and in some instances generalizations from such observations are not corroborated by the frequencies and distributions of the bees involved. Our data suggest that cleptoparasitic pressure, rather than other features of the forest environment, may be responsible for the low abundance of E. nigrita in the Amazonian forests.     

Chromosomal analysis in Cathartidae: distribution of heterochromatic blocks and rDNA, and phylogenetic considerations

Three species of Cathartidae (Sarcoramphus papa, Cathartes aura and Cathartes burrovianus) were cytogenetically characterized by G- and C-banding. 18S–28S rDNA was used as a probe to map major ribosomal clusters. These species showed very similar karyotypes, with 2n = 80, 10 pairs of macrochromosomes, a submetacentric Z and a metacentric W chromosome. However, differences were found in the amount and distribution of heterochromatic blocks: S. papa showed heterochromatin only in the pericentromeric region and in chromosome W, while both species of Cathartes had heterochromatic blocks also in the long arm of two acrocentric pairs. Ribosomal clusters were found in a small pair in all three species. Karyotype analysis in Cathartidae revealed that this family has retained similarities to the putative avian ancestral karyotype, and placed Cathartidae in a more basal position in relation to Accipitridae and Falconidae. However, the cytogenetic data still cannot clarify the phylogenetic relationship between this family and other groups, such as Ciconiidae, considered its sister-group according to nucleic acid hybridization studies. J. C. Pieczarka and C. Y. Nagamachi—Researcher from CNPq, Brazil.     

Floral and pollination biology of the critically endangered insular orchid Calanthe amamiana: Implications for in situ conservation

Calanthe amamiana is a terrestrial orchid that thrives on the shady forest floors of broad-leaved forests on Amami Island, central Ryukyus, Japan. Here, I report on the floral and pollination biology of this critically endangered orchid based on a 7-year study conducted in the species' natural habitats. As the nectarless flowers are probably self-compatible but are unable to autonomously self-pollinate, they need to attract pollen vectors by deceit for pollination. To advertise themselves, the flowering inflorescences, which comprise a few to dozens of flowers, use whitish floral colors that are comparatively conspicuous against the shaded background. The exclusive pollinator was the long-horned bee Eucera okinawae, which nests in soils of the forest floor, although bee abundance varied considerably among study years. Natural fruit-set ratios were generally low but showed interannual variation. The annual fruit-set ratios were positively correlated with annual bee abundance, thereby suggesting that under natural conditions, the orchid is pollinator-limited. Given that C. amamiana is dependent exclusively on E. okinawae for pollination and is also probably pollinator-limited, conservation plans for this orchid should take into consideration the welfare of long-horned bees. In particular, as nectariferous flowers were unavailable within broad-leaved forests, to satisfy the foraging requirements of long-horned bees, conservation managers should be cognizant of conservation values of flowering plants distributed in sun-lit sites near orchid habitats, and manage those in an appropriate manner.     

Nuclear DNA content estimates in multicellular green, red and brown algae: phylogenetic considerations

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Multicellular eukaryotic algae are phylogenetically disparate. Nuclear DNA content estimates have been published for fewer than 1 % of the described species of Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta. The present investigation aims to summarize the state of our knowledge and to add substantially to our database of C-values for theses algae. METHODS: The DNA-localizing fluorochrome DAPI (4', 6-diamidino-2-phenylindole) and RBC (chicken erythrocyte) standard were used to estimate 2C values with static microspectrophotometry. KEY RESULTS: 2C DNA contents for 85 species of Chlorophyta range from 0.2-6.1 pg, excluding the highly polyploidy Charales and Desmidiales with DNA contents of up to 39.2 and 20.7 pg, respectively. 2C DNA contents for 111 species of Rhodophyta range from 0.1-2.8 pg, and for 44 species of Phaeophyta range from 0.2-1.8 pg. CONCLUSIONS: New availability of consensus higher-level molecular phylogenies provides a framework for viewing C-value data in a phylogenetic context. Both DNA content ranges and mean values are greater in taxa considered to be basal. It is proposed that the basal, ancestral genome in each algal group was quite small. Both mechanistic and ecological processes are discussed that could have produced the observed C-value ranges.