Description and epidemiological implications of <Emphasis Type="Italic">S. scabiei</Emphasis> infection in roe deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>) originating from chamois (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rupicapra rupicapra</Emphasis>)

The authors describe a case of Sarcoptes scabiei transmission from a chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) kid to three roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) fawns kept in captive cohabitation in a wildlife rehabilitation centre for approximately 4 months. Symptoms in the two male fawns started developing 1 week after skin lesions were noticed in the kid, whereas a delayed (75 days later) appearance of scabies signs was observed in the female fawn. A severe generalised form of scabies rapidly developed in a male fawn, but lesions in the other two healed after triple inoculation of ivermectin at 15 days intervals. These roe deer were monitored for specific anti-S. scabiei antibodies with an immunoblotting technique. The strongest antibody response was exhibited during the clinical phase of the infection and then rapidly declined post-treatment. Interestingly, the female fawn developed immunoglobulin G to S. scabiei proteins more than 2 months before the onset of clinical scabies. Since all captive roe deer appeared sensitive to infection with S. scabiei var. rupicaprae, the authors hypothesise that the sporadic frequency of spontaneous scabies in this Cervid host may be attributed to avoidance of direct contacts with moribund or recently dead scabietic chamois, and/or to a self-limiting (and therefore difficult to detect) course of the disease after infrequent infectious contacts and/or exposure to lower infectious doses than in the described episode.     

Descriptive epidemiology of a scabies epidemic in chamois in the Dolomite Alps,Italy

In 1995, the hitherto Sarcoptes-free alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) of the Dolomite Alps (Italy) were affected by scabies for the first time after the spread of the disease from a neighbouring focus in Austria. Since then, four Agencies cooperated to warrant monitoring of the spatial and temporal progress of the outbreak and further active surveillance was carried out within an intensive study area. In ten years, 15 meta-populations numbering 10,000 chamois and 210,000 ha were encompassed with a maximum distance of 55 km from the index case. “Oil spot” advancement of the epidemic was observed together with “jumps” of 9 to 20 km followed by spreading of the infection to the intervening population units. Demographic decline of the four meta-populations so far affected for a minimum of six years ranged between 49 and 77% (), whereas similar post-epidemic densities of 1.1 to 1.7 heads/100 ha () were recorded. Contiguous resistant and sensitive herds with similar pre-epidemic density were detected on a smaller population scale, suggesting complementary mechanisms intervening besides density-dependence as determinants of the outbreak outcome. No sex or age class showed a higher sensitivity to scabies out of a sample of 1,696 infected chamois. A peak prevalence of free-ranging chamois bearing overt scabietic lesions was observed in January and February. Cases were only sporadically diagnosed in other sympatrc wild ruminants (Cervus elaphus, Capreolus capreolus and Ovis gmelini musimon), whereas all four alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex) herds living in the surveyed area suffered from scabies-induced decline.     

Prevalence of antibodies against selected agents shared between Cantabrian chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica parva) and domestic goats

Southern chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica) share the habitat with domestic ungulates, and may, therefore, play a role in the epidemiology of shared agents. The objective of this study was to determine the seroprevalence for Brucella spp., Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis (MAP), pestivirus, and Sarcoptes scabiei in Cantabrian chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica parva) and compare these data with those of sympatric domestic goats (Capra hircus). From 2005 to 2008, blood samples were obtained from 236 adult Cantabrian chamois in two different populations, the western one and the eastern one. Seroprevalence for Brucella spp. and pestivirus was assessed using commercial ELISA kits, whereas specifically designed ELISA tests were used for MAP and S. scabiei. No antibodies against Brucella spp. were detected. Conversely, antibodies against MAP, pestivirus (chamois 3.8%; goat 2.3%), and S. scabiei (chamois 11.9%; goat 12.8%) were detected in both species. Seroprevalence for MAP was significantly higher for domestic goats (26%) than for chamois (9.7%). In chamois, seroprevalence for pestivirus was higher in the west (6.5%) than in the east (range 0–1.8%), whereas seroprevalence for S. scabiei followed the opposite trend (west 4.6%; east 16.7–21.4%). We suggest that certain diseases could circulate between Cantabrian chamois and domestic goat populations, and domestic livestock may suppose a threat for the health status of sympatric Cantabrian chamois.     

Clinical infection of Cantabrian chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica parva) by louping ill virus: new concern for mountain ungulate conservation?

Louping ill virus (LIV) was recently involved in an outbreak of encephalitis in domestic goats from Asturias region, northwestern Spain. Since livestock and wildlife in Asturias are frequently in close contact, we designed a retrospective survey for LIV antibody prevalence in wild ungulates by testing sera from 51 red deer (Cervus elaphus), 19 Cantabrian chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica parva) and 8 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) by the haemagglutination inhibition (HI) test. Only two Cantabrian chamois out of the 78 tested (2.6?±?3.5 %) gave positive results. Seroprevalence in chamois was 10.5?±?13.8 %. One of these chamois was found dead after falling down a cliff and the other one was found alive but with neurological signs. Histological examination of brain samples revealed that both animals showed severe inflammatory lesions compatible with a viral encephalitis caused by LIV, but LIV antigen was not detectable by specific immunohistochemistry. Real time RT-PCR was performed on formalin-fixed paraffin embedded sections of brain but was unable to confirm the presence of LIV RNA due to poor sample quality. By testing one of two HI positive sera from chamois by virus neutralization test and plaque reduction neutralization test against West Nile virus, Bagaza virus, Usutu virus, LIV and tick-borne encephalitis virus, we confirmed the presence of high antibody titres (1:10240) against LIV in the absence of antibodies to another Flavivirus. This work describes the first association between LIV and clinical encephalitis in chamois, which suggests that special attention should be paid to the impact on chamois conservation and management in Asturias, and perhaps in other European regions.     

Effects of livestock and non-native mouflon on use of high-elevation pastures by Alpine chamois

Interspecific interference among livestock, native and non-native large herbivores is a key management and conservation issue, and little is known about its dynamics and implications. We investigated whether native Alpine chamois (Rupicapra r. rupicapra) modify their spatial distribution when non-native mouflon Ovis orientalis musimon and livestock (domestic sheep Ovis aries, and domestic goats Capra hircus) inhabit the same areas in the Alpine meadows of Italian Eastern Alps. We walked 5 hiking trails (5.0 ± 0.1 km) at dawn, twice a month during summers 2007 and 2008. During these surveys, we located each group of free-ranging ungulates (chamois, mouflon, and livestock). We also estimated the quality of meadows, finding that forage availability increased linearly as the distance from rocks (i.e., chamois refuges) increased. We predicted that the linear distance between chamois groups and rocks would depend on the co-presence of livestock and mouflon groups. Our results showed that chamois were more likely to be observed in areas with low food availability, but safer (i.e., closer to the rocks), whenever the nearest livestock group was larger and closer, especially if the shepherd's dog was present. Avoidance of the best feeding patches by the wild species is presumably due to spatial interference (e.g. visual and acoustic disturbance) and/or predation risk perception caused by the presence of shepherd's dogs. Similarly, the larger was the nearest group of mouflon, the closer to rocks was located the chamois group. Interestingly, mouflon group vicinity induced chamois to move closer to rocks only if mouflon rams were within the group. This suggests that physical displacement of the smaller species (i.e. chamois) is likely to occur to avoid direct disturbance of larger mouflon rams. Our study clearly showed how a native herbivorous species adjusts its spatial distribution and decreases the likelihood of using areas with higher food availability when livestock and/or a non-native species co-occur.     

Dermatophytosis due to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Trichophyton verrucosum</Emphasis> in a chamois (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rupicapra rupicapra)</Emphasis>

A 3-year-old male chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) shot during a harvest plan in Piedmont (Italy) presented periocular alopecic and thickened crusty lesions, some of which slightly red in colour. Hair still present was broken and easily removed. Direct microscopic examination of the pathological material collected by skin scraping led to the diagnosis of dermatophytosis, as the hair shafts appeared invaded by unstained spherical spores (arthroconidia). Fungal growth was obtained by culturing hair and crusts on thiamine/inositol enriched Sabouraud’s medium at 37°C. The macro- and microscopic characteristics of the organism were typical of the dermatophyte Trichophyton verrucosum. Wild ruminants are rarely affected by dermatophytosis, whereas in cattle, sheep and goats, infection because of this dermatophyte is quite common. This seems to be the first case of infection by T. verrucosum in chamois.     

Influences of fallow age and season on the foraging behavior and diet selection pattern of goats (Capra hircus L.)

A study was undertaken to determine the foraging behavior and diet selection pattern of goats maintained on communal exclosures in relation to the influence of fallow age (years since effective protection initiated; <8 years vs. >12 years) and season (long rainy, dry, and short rainy seasons). The frequency of browsing was higher (P < 0.05) in the exclosures fallowed for >12 years compared to those fallowed for <8 years and this frequency was also highest during the short rainy season. More (P < 0.05) herbaceous bites were recorded in the <8 years fallow exclosures, compared to the >12 years fallow exclosures. Herbaceous species bites were maximized during the long rainy season whereas woody species bites were maximized during the dry season. The goats foraged upon 48 plant species of which 69% were woody species, 19% grasses, and the rest comprised of various forb species. The top species that significantly (P < 0.05) contributed to the diet of goats were Acacia etbaica, Balanites aegyptica, Cadaba farinosa, Capparis tomentosa, Dichrostachys cinerea, and Ocimum forskolei. The goats targeted taller woody species than the average of the exclosures. Maurea angolensis, Jasminium abyssinicum, C. farinosa, and Ormocarpum pubescence were among the preferred species that appeared to be on the verge of disappearance in most of the exclosures investigated in this study and require immediate attention. Using goats to reduce the threat of potential bush infestation appears to be a viable option for managing and sustaining production from exclosures since the goats showed preference for D. cinerea, the species considered a prolific invader plant. There is, however, a need to conduct further research on the impacts of direct browsing by the goats and this should also entail the determination of optimum number of goats/unit area.     

The epizootiology of gastrointestinal nematode parasites in Greek dairy breeds of sheep and goats

Gastrointestinal (GI) parasitism represents a severe health problem in small ruminant production systems world-wide. The objective of the present study was three-fold: (i) to assess the prevalence of GI parasitism in dairy breeds of sheep and goats in selected areas of Greece; (ii) to determine the species of existing gastrointestinal parasites; and (iii) to investigate the effect of climatic factors on the seasonal variation of parasite population dynamics in dairy sheep and goats reared in two different geographical areas of Greece. The study was conducted in four flocks of either sheep or goats that were equally allocated in northern and central Greece. In each flock, faecal samples were randomly collected from 30 animals at monthly intervals and were used for nematode egg counts and coprocultures. Two animals from each flock were slaughtered monthly and their GI tract were examined for adult worm population and identification. The study revealed that the parasitic burdens in sheep were significantly (P<0.05) higher than those in goats. Faecal egg counts for both sheep and goats were significantly (P<0.01) affected by the month of the year and there was also a significant interaction between month of the year and area of study (P<0.01). Teladorsagia, Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus and Chabertia were the most prevalent nematode genera in both sheep and goats. Such information could be useful for the development of strategic treatments when sheep and goats are reared under systems similar to those described in this study.     

Cilia-associated respiratory (CAR) bacillus infection in adult red deer, chamois, and roe deer

Cilia-associated respiratory (CAR) bacillus is an unclassified bacterium that colonizes the ciliated epithelium of airways in laboratory rats, laboratory mice, and laboratory and conventionally reared rabbits, cattle, goats, and pigs. Data on the prevalence of CAR bacillus infection in wild animals are lacking. The present study demonstrated the occurrence of the organism in wild red deer (Cervus elaphus hippelaphus), chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) from the Val Fontana in northern Italy. Prevalence ranged from 26% for red deer to 56% for chamois, with a statistically significant negative correlation between CAR bacilli infection and the presence of lymphoid follicles.     

Effect of method of processing foliage of Acacia mangium and inclusion of bamboo charcoal in the diet on performance of growing goats

Two experiments were conducted to examine the effect of including charcoal and of different processing methods of foliage from Acacia mangium in the diet on intake and performance of goats. In experiment 1, four male goats were used in a Latin square arrangement. The treatments were: control, no bamboo charcoal, and 0.5, 1.0 or 1.5 g bamboo charcoal per kg body weight (BW). The diet consisted of 10 g/kg initial BW dry matter (DM) of concentrate and Para grass, respectively. Acacia was fed ad libitum at a level of 130% of the individual fresh intake the previous day. The time for each period was 21 days with the last seven days for data collection. Adding bamboo charcoal to the diet did not increase DM intake of Acacia, total DM intake or neutral detergent fiber or acid detergent fiber digestibilities, but had a significant effect on DM, organic matter (OM) and crude protein (CP) digestibilities and nitrogen (N) retention higher values being obtained in treatments 0.5 and 1.0, significantly higher than in the control or 1.5 treatments.

In experiment 2, 42 goats were randomly allotted to 6 different treatment groups. The treatments were three different methods of processing Acacia: fresh foliage, wilted foliage or dried foliage. Each method was tested with or without adding bamboo charcoal (0.5 g charcoal/kg BW). The diet was the same as in Exp. 1. The experimental time was 12 weeks. The goats fed the diet with bamboo charcoal consumed similar amounts of total DM and DM of Acacia as the goats fed the diet without bamboo charcoal and grew significantly faster (53 and 44 g/day, respectively, with and without charcoal). The processing method of Acacia foliage had a significant effect on total DM intake and DM intake of Acacia. The highest total DM intake was obtained by goats fed wilted Acacia, significantly different from fresh and dried Acacia. The weight gain of goats fed wilted or dried Acacia was higher than that of goats fed fresh Acacia, but this difference was not significant. In conclusion, the value of Acacia mangium as a feed for goats can be improved by wilting the foliage and feeding 0.5 to 1 g/kg BW of bamboo charcoal per day     

Wolf depredation on livestock in central Greece

We studied wolfCanis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 — livestock conflict in central Greece by investigating patterns of 267 verified wolf attacks on livestock for 21 months. Wolves attacked adult goats 43% and cattle 218% more than expected, whereas sheep 41% less than expected from their availability. Wolves killed less than four sheep or goats in 79%, and one cow or calf in 74% of depredation events, respectively. We recorded higher attack rates during wolf post-weaning season. Wolf attacks on strayed, or kept inside non predator-proof enclosures, sheep and goats, were on average two to four times respectively more destructive than those when livestock was guarded by a shepherd. Sheepdog use reduced losses per attack. Optimal sheepdog number ranged from 3 to 9 animals depending on flock size. Losses per attack were positively related to the number of wolves involved. Total losses per farm were positively correlated with the size of livestock unit but percentage losses per capita increased with decreasing flock size. Management implications to mitigate livestock depredation are discussed.     

Serological diagnostic potential of recombinant outer membrane protein (Omp31) from Brucella melitensis in goat and sheep brucellosis

Outer membrane proteins of Brucella have been classified as group 1 (94 or 88 kDa), group 2 (36–38 kDa), and group 3 (31–34 and 25–27 kDa). Two proteins of 25 and 31 kDa with only 34% of identity are included in group 3 and they are coded for by the omp25 and omp31 genes. Proposed study planned to detect antibodies to Brucella melitensis Omp31 in farm goats having history of B. melitensis induced abortions, in B. melitensis-infected goats and sheep. By enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), using recombinant Omp31 as antigen, of 872 farm goats antibodies to Omp31 were detected in 112 (12.8%) cases. Out of 14 naturally infected goats infected with B. melitensis 12 (85.7%) showed anti Omp31 antibodies. Out of 10 naturally infected sheep with Brucella ovis, antibodies to Omp31 were detected only in 6 (60%) cases and in 18 (81.8%) out of 22 cases infected with B. melitensis. Obtained results were also compared with the rose Bengal plate test (RBPT). In controlled experiments, sensitivity and specificity of recombinant Omp31 (rOmp31) ELISA and RBPT were also evaluated and it was found that former test is 100% specific though RBPT has slightly higher sensitivity. In this study, we found a significant difference between the two groups (B. melitensis and B. ovis infected) in terms of the percentage of positive reactions or signal level by an ELISA. The reactivity of the positive sera against the purified rOmp31 was also tested by Western blotting. Sera from B. melitensis-infected animals showed a strong reactivity in comparison to sera from B. ovis-infected animals. The potential diagnostic usefulness of this antigen in combination with other recombinant proteins from B. melitensis would be of great importance in future in eradication of brucellosis.     

Arthropod fauna on grassland–heathland associations under different grazing managements with domestic ruminants

The effects of two grazer species (cattle or sheep) and two flock types (single or mixed with goats) on vegetation and arthropod fauna were studied in a factorial design on eight plots which comprised two thirds of mechanically cleared heathland and one third of improved ryegrass-clover grassland. After six grazing seasons, the shrubland areas were dominated by gorse (Ulex gallii) in all treatments. Herbaceous cover was higher under mixed than under single grazing, and under sheep than under cattle grazing. Higher captures of Opiliones, Julida, Lithobiomorpha, Microcoryphia and Carabidae were recorded in shrublands than in grasslands, while the reverse was observed for Linyphiidae, Lycosidae and Hemiptera. Within shrublands, fauna responded to the flock type but not to the grazer species. More arthropod groups favoured the patchier areas with higher herbaceous biomass generated by mixed herds with goats. Within grasslands, species-specific responses to the grazer species were observed. Mixed grazing schemes which include goats within partially improved heathlands could contribute to maintain higher biodiversity levels in these marginal areas.     

Serological,culture and molecular survey of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis</Emphasis> in a goat flock in Tuscany

Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis (Map) is a pathogen which causes a chronic progressive granulomatous enteritis known as paratuberculosis or Johne’s disease and it primarily affects wild and domestic ruminants. The aim of this research was to examine a flock which consisted of 294 goats and was located in Garfagnana district (Tuscany, Italy) performing ELISA tests, culture and IS900 PCR assay; direct diagnostic methods were carried out not only on bulk tank milk and cheese samples but also on individual milk and tissue specimens collected from nine subjects positive to ELISA tests. Out of 294 animals, 20 goats (6.8%) were positive to ELISA surveys. Bulk tank milk samples were negative to culture and to PCR assay carried out on the DNA extracted directly from them, while, with respect to cheese, Map was detected by culture in 2/12 (16.66%) cheeses ripened for 3–7 days, and by PCR in 2/12 (16.66%) cheeses ripened for 3–7 days and in 3/12 (25%) cheeses ripened for 45 days. Regarding individual milk samples, Map was detected by culture in 2/9 (22.22%) specimens and by PCR in 5/9 (55.55%) samples. Furthermore, Map was isolated from the intestine in 9/9 (100%) animals, from the mesenteric lymph nodes in 8/9 (88.88%) subjects, from the liver in 4/9 (44.44%) goats, from the spleen in 5/9 (55.55%) animals, while Map DNA was found in all the tissue samples analyzed.The results demonstrated the presence of paratuberculosis in a goat flock located in Garfagnana district (Tuscany, Italy).     

Pregnancy-specific protein B and progesterone concentrations in French Alpine goats throughout gestation.

The 34 French Alpine dairy goats originated from a single flock and were artificially inseminated 44 h after synchronization of oestrus. They were bled daily at the jugular vein from 15 to 27 days after AI. An early pregnancy diagnosis by RIA of progesterone concentration was performed 21 days after AI. In pregnant goats (greater than 1.5 ng progesterone/ml) daily sampling was extended until 30 days after AI and, from those, 9 were bled every 2 weeks until the end of pregnancy and at 50 and 63 days post partum. Pregnancy-specific protein B (PSPB) was also assayed. The kidding rate was 67.6% (23/34). PSPB concentrations (ng/ml) in pregnant goats were significantly different from those of non-pregnant goats at 24 days after AI (0.82 +/- 0.18 vs 1.78 +/- 0.19; mean +/- s.e.m.) and rose to 40 ng/ml at the end of pregnancy. From Day 25 and throughout gestation, females with 2 fetuses had higher PSPB concentrations than did those with a single fetus (P less than 0.05). In the 2 goats exhibiting late embryonic mortality according to progesterone concentrations, one had a PSPB profile very similar to those of pregnant goats until 30 days while the other did not show any elevation of PSPB concentration. It is concluded that PSPB profiles in goats are similar to those found in cows throughout pregnancy and that PSPB RIA may be useful for pregnancy diagnosis or diagnosis of late embryonic mortality.     

Increasing Himalayan tahr and decreasing chamois densities in the eastern Southern Alps, New Zealand: evidence for interspecific competition

There is anecdotal evidence that increasing densities of Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) are associated with declining densities of chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) in the Southern Alps, New Zealand. To examine this phenomenon, densities of tahr and chamois were measured at 53 sites within their sympatric range in the eastern Southern Alps during 1978–1979. In sites where only one species was present, tahr density was significantly higher than chamois density (P=0.032), probably reflecting species differences in sociality. Chamois density was higher in catchments without tahr than in those with tahr (P=0.012). Similarly, tahr density was significantly higher at sites without chamois than at those with chamois (P=0.033). Sites with both species present (termed sympatric) were significantly larger than those with only chamois or tahr (P<0.001). Following the prohibition of aerial hunting of tahr in 1983, 16 of the 17 sites where tahr and chamois were sympatric during 1978–1979 were recounted during 1991–1996. There was a 6-fold increase in the mean density of tahr between the two counts (P=0.001), whereas chamois density had declined significantly (P=0.006). Chamois persisted at only three sites, two of which had the highest chamois densities in 1978–1979. This is evidence that increasing densities of tahr exclude chamois from all but the `best' habitats. We conclude that intensive aerial hunting of tahr during 1967–1983 reduced tahr densities such that chamois could co-exist with tahr. Received: 20 March 1997 / Accepted: 8 September 1997     

Efficacy of marbofloxacin for naturally occurring contagious caprine pleuropneumonia

The aim of the present study is to determine the efficacy of marbofloxacin used in goats with naturally occurring contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP). The study was performed in two groups (consisting of 15 animals in each group) with two different doses of 10% aqueous solution of marbofloxacin injected intramuscularly into the semitendinous muscle. 2 mg/kg BW for 3 days (total dose administered: 6 mg/kg BW) was injected to the first group (group 1) and 3 mg/kg for 2 times every other day (total dose administered: 6 mg/kg BW) was injected to the second group (group 2). Microbiological analyses revealed that the causative agent of the disease was Mycoplasma capricolum subsp. capripneumoniae. Cure rates for groups 1 and 2 were determined as 100% (15/15 goats) and 93% (14/15 goats), respectively. The results of this field trial suggest that marbofloxacin could be an effective drug against CCPP in goats.     

Epidemiological studies on foot and mouth disease and paratuberculosis in small ruminants in Tafelah and Ma’an,Jordan

A cross-sectional study was performed to investigate some epidemiological aspects of foot and mouth disease (FMD) and paratuberculosis in small ruminant flocks located in two governorates in Southern Jordan. A total of 320 sheep and 300 goats from 38 and 24, sheep and goat flocks, respectively, were randomly sampled and assayed for presence of antibodies against FMD virus and Mycobacterium paratuberculosis using commercially available kits. A structured pre-tested questionnaire was administered to collect information on flocks’ health and management. A multivariable logistic regression model was constructed to investigate risk factors associated with seropositivity to the two studied diseases. The individual prevalence of FMD and paratuberculosis in sheep was 10.4 and 22.1%, respectively. The sheep flock level seroprevalence for FMD and paratuberculosis was 44.7 and 50%, respectively. In goats, the individual prevalence of FMD and paratuberculosis was 6.3 and 18.1%, respectively. The goat flock level seroprevalence for FMD and paratuberculosis was 33.3 and 45.8%, respectively. The logistic regression model revealed mixed farming as a common risk factor for both FMD and paratuberculosis. Grazing in communal areas and addition of new animals were identified as risk factors for paratuberculosis.     

Mycoplasma conjunctivae infection is not maintained in alpine chamois in eastern Switzerland

The occurrence of infectious keratoconjunctivitis (IKC) was assessed in alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra) in Grisons (Switzerland) from 1950 to 1999. The first IKC outbreaks were reported in the 1950's. Since then, the number of affected subpopulations constantly increased and, by 1999, IKC outbreaks were reported in 39 of 51 (77%) chamois sub-populations. From 1992-99, a total of 243 chamois which died of the consequences of IKC were recorded. The number of cases differed between years, and a distinct seasonal trend was observed. Infectious keratoconjunctivitis was more common during summer and autumn, with 48% of the cases recorded in August-October. Juveniles (< 4 yr of age) were mostly represented. To verify the presence of Mycoplasma conjunctivae in chamois we analyzed conjunctival swabs taken from animals affected with IKC. Among a sample of 28 affected chamois, M. conjunctivae was identified 14 times (50%). An indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was developed to detect specific M. conjunctivae antibodies in sera of alpine chamois with IKC. We performed a serologic investigation to assess whether M. conjunctivae infection is self-maintained in the chamois population in Grisons. In subpopulations with IKC oubreaks, seroprevalence was low (8%). Seroprevalence was even lower in subpopulations with recent IKC outbreaks (3%). We concluded that the M. conjunctivae infection is not self-maintained in alpine chamois in Grisons. The agent may originate in domestic sheep living in proximity to chamois during summer. Control of IKC in chamois should consider immunoprophylaxis in sheep or limiting interspecific transmission of M. conjunctivae.     

Late Pleistocene and Holocene chamois in Italy

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