Pet ownership and associated respiratory diseases

Background Studies have shown that pets are very important sensitizing agents in patients with asthma. Respiratory disorders and allergic diseases are common in the State of Qatar. Objective The aim of the present study was to determine whether exposure to pets and domestic animals plays a significant role in the development of asthma and allergic rhinitis among Qatari school children aged 6–14 years. Design A cross-sectional prospective study. Setting Public schools for boys and girls in urban and semi-urban areas. Subjects A total of 3,500 Qatari school boys and girls aged 6–14 years were approached. After exclusion of those who did not give consent for the study and incomplete questionnaires, 3,283 (98.3%) participants were included in the data analysis. Methods A multistage sampling technique was used and different schools from urban and semi-urban areas were selected. A standard questionnaire was distributed to parents of randomly selected school children aged 6–14 years between February 2003 and February 2004. Results The overall prevalence of asthma was 19.8% and the mean age of the children was 9.0 ± 2.0 years. The male and female percentages were 52.3% and 47.7% respectively. Nine hundred and ninety-six families out of 3,283 (30.3%) owned pets. It was found that among children with no family history of asthma, the relative risk (RR) of asthma with pets at home was 1.19 and the 95% confidence interval (CI) was 1.0–1.4 (P = 0.025). The RR of having allergic rhinitis was 1.60 (95% CI = 1.4–1.8; P < 0.001) and risk of having eczema was also significantly higher in participants with pets at home (RR = 1.28; 95% CI = 1.1–1.5; P < 0.001). Conclusion In the present study, the prevalence of asthma, allergic rhinitis, and eczema was significantly more common in families with domestic animals than in those without.     

Reference values for serum nitric oxide metabolites in pediatrics

Serum concentration of nitric oxide metabolites (NO_x) is associated with cardiovascular disease risk factors in pediatrics. The aim of this study was to determine sex- and age-specific reference ranges for serum NO_x concentrations in pediatrics. Serum NO_x levels were measured in 401 subjects (189 boys and 212 girls), aged 4–19 years, using the Griess method. Study subjects selected from participants of Tehran lipid and glucose study, an ongoing cohort study aimed at determining of noncommunicable disease risk factors among Tehranian subjects. The International Federation of Clinical Chemistry guidelines and the robust method were used for determining reference values for sample sizes greater or less than 120 respectively. The 95% reference values for serum NO_x concentrations were 13.6–69.2, 11.4–66.0, and 12.2–69.4 μmol/L in boys, girls, and total population respectively. The upper limit of serum NO_x was 28% lower in otherwise healthy overweight and obese boys while it was 6% higher in overweight and obese girls, for both groups compared to their corresponding normal weight subjects. In conclusion, this study, for the first time, reports reference values for serum NO_x levels in healthy children and adolescents.     

Obesity and the clustering of cardiovascular disease risk factors in 14-year-old children

Although overweight and obesity in childhood are related to risk factors of cardiovascular (CVD), most studies have examined these relationships separately. Internal cut-points were used to examine the relation of overweight (>85th and ≦90th percentile) and obesity (>90th percentile) to risk factor clustering in a sample of 2731 14-year-old children from Lower Silesia, Poland, examined cross-sectionally in 1996–97. All subjects went through anthropometric and blood pressure measurements, and fasting serum levels of lipid, lipoproteins and glucose were estimated. All risk factor (>90th percentile) prevalence increased greatly at higher levels of Body Mass Index (BMI) (kg/m2). Nearly every second obese child had elevated systolic blood pressure and every third child had elevated serum levels of triglycerides. Among overweight boys 24.7% were found to have at least one risk factor, whereas among obese boys every fourth had at least one risk factor. 25% overweight girls and nearly 18% obese girls showed at least one risk factor. Standardized odds ratios for associations between overweight and obesity, and risk factor clustering, indicated that obese boys were 4.8 times more likely to have an elevated level of at least two factors; the probability increasing to 16.1 in the case of three and more factors in comparison to their lean peers. Obese girls showed more then a 7 time higher probability of having three and more risk factors in relation to their lean peers.     

Features of the circadian rhythm of skin temperature in eight- to nine-year-old children and young adults

The age-related features of the circadian rhythm of skin temperature were studied using the Termochron iButton method in two age groups of subjects: eight-to nine-year-old boys and girls and young men and women aged 20–22 years. For this purpose, the temperature was monitored for 48 h at a recording interval of 10 min. The following authentic chronobiological differences were revealed: the temperature mesor was higher in the girls than in the boys and in the young men it was higher than in the young women. The circadian rhythm’s amplitude was higher in the boys and the young women. Studies of the chronological values in different 24-h periods showed that the average level of temperature at night was lower in all subjects. The amplitude in the adults did not differ in different 24-h periods, whereas it was higher in the children at night.     

Plasma total homocysteine and subarachnoid haemorrhage in a co-factor replete population

Summary. Mild hyperhomocysteinaemia is a postulated risk factor for occlusive vascular disease, including stroke. Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) has an annual incidence of 10–20 per 100,000 and accounts for 5–10% of all strokes. Measurement of plasma total homocysteine (tHcy) in a cohort of vitamin B12 and folate replete patients did not reveal any association between tHcy and the aetiology of SAH. Received November 6, 2000 Accepted February 12, 2001     

Relation of Plasma Homocysteine to Plasma Amyloid Beta Levels

Background Elevated plasma homocysteine and amyloid β (Aβ) have been associated with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). We investigated the cross-sectional association between these biomarkers. Methods We used linear regression to relate plasma homocysteine and Aβ adjusting for age, gender, creatinine, APOE-ε4, and ethnic group in 327 persons aged 78 ± 6.6 years. Results Plasma homocysteine correlated with age, serum creatinine, plasma Aβ40 and Aβ42, and was inversely correlated with serum vitamin B12, and folate. Aβ42, but not Aβ40, was related to later development of dementia. Homocysteine was related to higher Aβ40 levels (coefficient = 2.0; P < 0.0001) and this association was attenuated after adjustment for creatinine (coefficient = 1.0; P < 0.0001). The crude association between homocysteine and Aβ42 was weaker (coefficient = 0.5; P = 0.01) and became non-significant after adjustment for creatinine (coefficient = 0.4; P = 0.06). These associations were unrelated to ethnicity, the presence of APOE-ε4 or dementia. Analyses by quartiles of homocysteine showed that these association were driven primarily by the fourth quartile. Conclusions Plasma homocysteine is directly related to Aβ40. The association with Aβ42 is not significant. These results seem to indicate that homocysteine is related to aging but not specifically to AD. Special issue dedicated to John P. Blass.     

Sex Differences in Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Adolescents With Type 1 Diabetes

BackgroundCardiovascular disease is seen at a younger age and at a higher prevalence in patients with type 1 diabetes than in the general population. It is well described that women with type 1 diabetes have a higher relative risk of cardiovascular disease than men with type 1 diabetes, unlike that seen in the general population. The pathophysiology behind this is unknown.ObjectiveWe performed a cross-sectional study to examine sex differences in cardiovascular disease risk factors in adolescents with type 1 diabetes between ages 13 and 20 years, compared with children of a similar age without type 1 diabetes.MethodsAll patients underwent a dual energy x-ray absorptiometry scan to measure body composition and a pulse wave test measure of arterial elasticity. Fasting serum lipid levels, apolipoprotein B, and apolipoprotein C-III levels were measured in each patient. Twenty-nine children with type 1 diabetes (10 girls, 19 boys) and 37 healthy children (18 girls, 19 boys) participated.ResultsAlthough no sex differences for body mass index (P = 0.91) and glycosylated hemoglobin (P = 0.69) were seen, girls with type 1 diabetes had a significantly higher percent trunk fat compared with boys (P = 0.004). No sex differences were found (P > 0.05) for percent trunk fat in adolescents without diabetes. There was no sex difference among any other cardiovascular risk factors in either children with or without diabetes.ConclusionsFemale adolescents with type 1 diabetes have more centrally distributed fat, which may contribute to their relatively higher cardiovascular disease risk. Attenuation of the central distribution of fat through exercise and dietary modifications may help ameliorate their subsequent cardiovascular disease burden.     

Plasma Trace Elements, Vitamin B12, Folate, and Homocysteine Levels in Cirrhotic Patients Compared to Healthy Controls

Increased serum homocysteine (Hcy) can induce liver diseases and can play a remarkable role in hepatic disorders. The purpose of the present study therefore was to investigate the relationship between serum vitamin B(12), folate, zinc and copper, cysteine, and Hcy level differences between cirrhotic patients and healthy subjects. We studied 32 cirrhotic patients (12 females and 20 males) aged 45 +/- 11 years and 32 control subjects (12 females and 20 males) aged 39 +/- 9 years. There was an inverse correlation between Hcy and vitamin B(12) in controls (r = -0.442, p < 0.011) but not in cirrhotic patients (r = -0.147, not significant). Also, mean plasma folate was decreased in cirrhotic patients compared to controls (p < 0.001). Copper increased whereas zinc decreased significantly in cirrhotic patients. A positive correlation was seen between the Cu/Zn ratio and Cu in controls (r = 0.690, p < 0.01), but the correlation between the Cu/Zn ratio and Cu was not significant in the cirrhotic group. Negative correlations were seen between plasma concentration of zinc and the Cu/Zn ratio in controls and cirrhotic patients (r = -0.618, p < 0.01 and r = -0.670, p < 0.01, respectively). Cirrhotic patients displayed multiple abnormalities, including changes in cysteine metabolism and in zinc and copper levels. Although hyperhomocysteinemia is known as an atherogenic and thrombogenic risk factor for cardiovascular disease, it might also be a risk factor for cirrhotic patients. Plasma Hcy, vitamin B(12), and folic acid measurement may be useful in the evaluation of cirrhotic patients.     

Relationship between Plasma Adiponectin Levels and Metabolic Risk Profiles in Taiwanese Children

Objective: Adiponectin, a novel adipokine with antiinflammatory and insulin‐sensitizing properties, has an important role in glucose metabolism and is negatively correlated with body fat amount in adults. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the association of plasma adiponectin level with metabolic risk profiles and insulin resistance status among Taiwanese children. Research Methods and Procedures: We enrolled 1248 children (608 boys and 640 girls) to ascertain their demographic, anthropometric, and cardiovascular risk factors distribution in Taipei. We measured plasma insulin, adiponectin, and leptin levels by radioimmunoassay (Linco Research Inc, St. Charles, MO). We calculated an insulin resistance index (IRI) using the Homeostasis Model Assessment model and also calculated an insulin resistance syndrome (IRS) summary score for each individual by adding the quartile ranks from the distribution of systolic blood pressure, serum triglyceride, high‐density lipoprotein‐cholesterol (HDL‐C) (inverse), and insulin levels. Results: In general, the boys had larger BMI, higher systolic blood pressure, serum total cholesterol, and triglyceride, and lower plasma leptin and adiponectin levels than girls. Plasma adiponectin levels were correlated negatively with BMI, leptin, insulin, IRI, and IRS summary score but positively correlated with HDL‐C in both boys and girls. In multivariate regression analyses, adiponectin was negatively associated with insulin (girls only), IRI (girls only), and IRS score, and positively associated with HDL‐C in both genders even after adjusting for age, BMI, plasma leptin level, and other potential confounders. Discussion: These data suggest that plasma adiponectin levels were negatively associated with metabolic risk profiles that may have played a protective role in the development of insulin resistance among Taiwanese school children.     

Haematinic Deficiency and Macrocytosis in Middle-Aged and Older Adults

Objective

To assess the prevalence and determinants of haematinic deficiency (lack of B12 folate or iron) and macrocytosis in blood from a national population-based study of middle-aged and older adults.

Methods

A cross-sectional study involving 1,207 adults aged ≥45 years, recruited from a sub-study of the Irish National Survey of Lifestyle Attitudes and Nutrition (SLÁN 2007). Participants completed a health and lifestyle questionnaire and a standard food frequency questionnaire. Non-fasting blood samples were obtained for measurement of full blood count and expert morphological assessment, serum ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor assay (sTfR), B12, folate and coeliac antibodies. Blood samples were also assayed for thyroid function (T4, TSH), liver function, aminotransferase (AST) and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT).

Results

The overall prevalence (95% C.I.) of anaemia (Hb <13.5g/dl men and 11.3 g/dl women) was 4.6% (2.9%–6.4%) in men and 1.0% (0.2%–1.9%) in women. Iron deficiency (ferritin <17ng/ml men and <11ng/ml in women) was detected in 6.3% of participants (3.7% in males and 8.7% in females, p<0.001). Based on both low ferritin and raised sTfR (>21nmol/ml) only 2.3% were iron-deficient. 3.0% and 2.7% were found to have low levels of serum folate (<2.3ng/ml) and serum B12 (<120ng/l) respectively. Clinically significant macrocytosis (MCV>99fl) was detected in 8.4% of subjects. Strong, significant and independent associations with macrocytosis were observed for lower social status, current smoking status, moderate to heavy alcohol intake, elevated GGT levels, deficiency of folate and vitamin B12, hypothyroidism and coeliac disease. The population attributable fraction (PAF) for macrocytosis associated with elevated GGT (25.0%) and smoking (24.6%) was higher than for excess alcohol intake (6.3%), folate deficiency (10.5%) or vitamin B12 (3.4%).

Conclusions

Haematinic deficiency and macrocytosis are common in middle-aged/older adults in Ireland. Macrocytosis is more likely to be attributable to an elevated GGT and smoking than vitamin B12 or folate deficiency.     

Age-related size invariance in perception of illusory and fragmented contours

We investigated invariant perception to sizes of images. Observers were secondary school students aged 7–17 years and adults. Two types of stimuli were used: fragmented line drawing of common objects and discs with deleted sectors which represented illusory Kanizsa contours, when discs were in particular positions. In experiments with fragmented images, we found an improvement in image recognition with observer’s age, increasing up to 13–14 years. The probability of recognition of fragmented line drawings increased significantly with decreasing stimulus size for children aged 7–12 years, indicating that size invariance at recognition for fragmented line drawings was absent in these children. However, size invariance was found for observers aged 7–12 years and for adults in this task. Upon the Kanizsa illusion appearance, the ratio of the separation between discs and disc diameter was smaller when we used larger disc diameters. This ratio increased with increasing age of observers. The obtained results provide evidence for the absence of size invariance when perceiving the Kanizsa illusion under our experimental conditions.     

Rate of T alleles and TT genotype at MTHFR 677C‐>T locus or C alleles and CC genotype at MTHFR 1298A‐>C locus among healthy subjects in Turkey: impact on homocysteine and folic acid status and reference intervals

Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) is important for folate and homocysteine (Hcy) metabolism. MTHFR 677C‐>T and 1298A‐>C MTHFR are two most common mutations which can affect folate and total homocysteine (tHcy) status. This study was designed to determine the rate of MTHFR 677C‐>T and 1298A‐>C mutations, and their influence on serum folate, Hcy and vitamin B12 status and the reference intervals in 402 healthy Turkish adults. The rate of MTHFR 677C‐>T or 1298A‐>C mutations was 50.7% or 54.7%, respectively. The MTHFR 677C‐>T mutation‐specific reference intervals for serum folate and tHcy were characterized by marked shifts in their upper limits. In homozygote subjects for MTHFR 677C‐>T serum folate concentration was lower and serum tHcy concentration was higher than those in the wild genotype; all subjects had lower serum folate and 54% of the subjects had higher tHcy concentrations than the cutoff values of ≤10 nmol/L and ≥12 µmol/L, respectively. Serum vitamin B12 status was similar in all genotypes. Serum tHcy concentrations were inversely correlated with serum folate and vitamin B12 concentrations in all genotypes. These data show that the rate of MTHFR 677C‐>T and 1298A‐>C mutations is very high in Turks and serum folate and tHcy status are impaired by these mutations. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Age- and sex-related characteristics and mechanisms of adaptations during the prepubertal and pubertal periods of development

Integrated study of the functional state of the sympathoadrenal system and the adrenal cortex in children of both sexes aged 10–15 years. The study was conducted on the basis of the daily adrenaline, noradrenaline, 17-ketosteroid, and 17-oxycorticosteroid excretion values, which allowed certain synchrony to be established in the manifestation of the activity of the transmitter link of the sympathoadrenal system and the adrenal cortex androgenic and glucocorticoid functions with age, during sexual maturation. The heterogeneous character of maturation was found in the sex groups: in girls at an age of 10 and 12 years and in the boys at an age of 14–15 years. Changes in the excretion of the hormones and hormone metabolites with different directions and rates in the age-sex groups were observed throughout the academic year. In 14- to 15-year-old boys, a sharp increase in the daily excretion of the glucocorticoid metabolites accompanied by a substantial decrease in the age-related noradrenaline excretion values and the sex hormone metabolite values at an age of 15 years was observed. In the girls, these values varied within the age range, which indicates a more perfect character of the neuroendocrine regulation of their physiological functions in the period of sexual maturation.     

Physical Activity,Obesity, and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Children. The Belgian Luxembourg Child Study II

GUILLAUME, MICHÈLE, LEIF LAPIDUS, PER BJÖRNTORP, ANDRE LAMBERT. Physical activity, obesity, and cardiovascular risk factors in children. The Belgian Luxembourg Child Study II. Physical activity was measured in relation to cardiovascular (CV) risk factors in a randomly selected population of 1028 children from Province de Luxembourg in Belgium, a mainly rural area with a high prevalence of such risk factors among adults and children. Physical activity was estimated as participation in sport activities, a major indicator of leisure-time physical activity in schoolchildren, and physical inactivity was estimated as frequency and duration of television (TV) watching. Boys participated more frequently in sport activities than girls did (p=0. 001). A majority of the children watched TV daily. After age adjustment, bodyweight (girls, p<0. 012; boys, p<0. 027) and, in boys, body mass index (BMI) (p<0. 039) were related to days per week of TV watching. No significant relationships with other CV risk factors remained after adjustments for BMI. In analyses of independent contributions of age, TV watching, and sports activity on CV risk factors, age showed highly significant relationships. In boys, TV showed relationships with BMI (P<0. 04) and (borderline) with systolic blood pressure, independent of age and sports activity, whereas the latter was significantly related to subscapular skinfold (p<0. 04) and (borderline) with triceps skinfold and cholesterol. In girls, no significant independent contributions to risk factor associations were found. The father's education was directly associated with sports activities, whereas the mother being a housewife showed negative relationships to physical activity and positive to TV watching in their children, suggesting socioeconomic influence on the activity patterns of children. Furthermore, registrations suggested less physical activity in the most rural part of the area. It is concluded that children in this mainly rural area watch TV frequently. In boys, physical inactivity, measured both as TV watching and as registrations of sports activities, contributes independently to body fat mass. In girls, no contribution or weaker contributions of physical inactivity were found. This suggests that contributory factors leading to obesity might be different in girls and boys.     

Micronutrient status and global DNA methylation in school-age children

Aberrations in global LINE-1 DNA methylation have been related to risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease. Micronutrients including methyl-donors and retinoids are involved in DNA methylation pathways. We investigated associations of micronutrient status and LINE-1 methylation in a cross-sectional study of school-age children from Bogotá, Colombia. Methylation of LINE-1 repetitive elements was quantified in 568 children 5–12 years of age using pyrosequencing technology. We examined the association of LINE-1 methylation with erythrocyte folate, plasma vitamin B12, vitamin A ferritin (an indicator of iron status) and serum zinc concentrations using multivariable linear regression. We also considered associations of LINE-1 methylation with socio-demographic and anthropometric characteristics. Mean (± SD) LINE-1 methylation was 80.25 (± 0.65) percentage of 5-mC (%5-mC). LINE-1 methylation was inversely related to plasma vitamin A. After adjustment for potential confounders, children with retinol levels higher than or equal to 1.05 µmol/L showed 0.19% 5-mC lower LINE-1 methylation than children with retinol levels lower than 0.70 µmol/L. LINE-1 methylation was also inversely associated with C-reactive protein, a marker of chronic inflammation, and female sex. We identified positive associations of maternal body mass index and socioeconomic status with LINE-1 methylation. These associations were not significantly different by sex. Whether modification of these exposures during school-age years leads to changes in global DNA methylation warrants further investigation.     

Effect of Ascaris infection on the nutritional status and I.Q. of children

It was estimated that about 1.3 billion persons all over the world were infected with Ascaris Lumbricoides (A.L.), Especially children in tropical and subtropical countries. AIM To investigate the effects of A.L. infection on the nutritional status and the intellectual level in a sample of Egyptian primary school children from rural Giza province. SUBJECTS AND METHODS A sample of 637 children (329 boys and 308 girls) aged 6–12 years, have been subjected to some anthropometric measurements including body weight, body height, arm circumference, head circumference and triceps skinfold thickness. In addition, the I.Q. was determined using “Draw-a-man” test. Blood hemoglobin concentration was also determined using a spectrophotometric method. All the children were then subjected to stools and urine examinations, and peri-anal swab. Only 242 children were included for further study, of whom 45 boys and 38 girls were found infected with A.L. solely, and 81 boys and 78 girls of about the same age free of parasitic infections were taken as control. RESULTS Children infected with A.L. has significantly lower body weight, height, and arm circumference but insignificantly lower skinfold thickness and head circumference as comparedto the control group. Infected children had significantly lower hemoglobin concentration and I.Q. than the controls. CONCLUSIONS Selected anthropometric measurements, biochemical and intellectual tests from a useful complementary battery for reliable and informative investigation of the effects of parasitic infection on child nutrition and health. A.L. was found to have a significant effect on the physical and intellectual status of the rural Egyptian children of age 6–12 years.     

The prognostic significance of the adaptation potential of the cardiovascular system in 10- and 11-year-old children

Experimental physiological studies were made in 10–11-year-old boys and girls, students of a gymnasium and an education-upbringing complex. The functional parameters recorded in children momentarily included: the heart rate, systolic and diastolic arterial pressure, Roufier index, and the adaptation potential (AP) of the cardiovascular system as an integral index of the adaptivity level of human organism on the whole, measured according to special formulas, and the index of the risk of disease development. Apart from it, the height, body mass, vital lung capacity, and strength of hand grip were measured, the puberty stage and deviations in the functioning of organs and systems were revealed. The AP levels used to evaluate adults’ adaptation did not agree with 10–11-year-old children’s physical development degree, puberty stages, and health condition (belonging to different health groups). No agreement was found between the levels of these parameters and the degrees of AP of the cardiovascular system in 10–11-year-old children based on their individual values and sigmal deviations of this index. Therefore, a conclusion on the adaptation capacities of a child’s organism and the risk of disease development in it based on the AP values may be erroneous. The authors suggest an age scale of the AP levels for 10–11-year-old children.     

Evaluation of Oxidative Stress, Antioxidant Status and Serum Vitamin C Levels in Cancer Patients

Taking into account the importance role of lipid peroxidation and antioxidants in the prevention and incidence of cancer, the present study was carried out to determine oxidative stress, serum total antioxidant (TAS), and vitamin C levels in cancer patients. Malondialdehyde(MDA), total antioxidant status, and vitamin C levels of 57cancer patients aged 19–80 years and 22 healthy subjects (control group) aged 22–76 years were evaluated. Serum concentrations of MDA as thiobarbitaric acid complexes were measured by fluorometry method, the serum TAS by using commercial test kits from Randox Laboratories, and vitamin C by using spectrocolorimetric method. The mean serum MDA concentrations of all cancer groups except lung cancer were significantly higher than control group (P < 0.004). The mean total antioxidant status was insignificantly higher than control group. The mean serum vitamin C level was significantly lower in patients as compared to the healthy subjects (PV < 0.0001). In conclusion, an alteration in the lipid peroxidation with concomitant changes in antioxidant defense system in cancer patients may be due to excessive oxidative stress. Serum low levels of vitamin C in the different type of cancer patients in spite of adequate daily intake may be due to increased utilization to scavenge lipid peroxides as well as their sequestration by tumor cells.     

Serum Alkaline Phosphatase and Rickets in Urban Schoolchildren

Among 569 schoolchildren (386 boys and 183 girls) aged 14-17 years, 233 had serum alkaline phosphatase values of 30 K.A. units or greater. There was no significant difference in the results in Asian, white, or West Indian children. The mean values were significantly greater in boys than girls and both showed a fall in mean values with increasing age. Radiological rickets occurred in at least 4% of the survey, and was more common in Asians. Low calcium and high hydroxyproline excretion in most of those investigated and the response to vitamin D therapy suggests that most children with alkaline phosphatase levels above 30 K.A. units have rickets.Since the decline of the widespread supplementation of the diet with vitamin D, the demands of the physiological growth spurt for extra vitamin D in adolescents already on a borderline intake may be responsible for the great increase in “biochemical” rickets. Once the growth spurt is over the condition subsides but the results of impaired growth or permanent pelvic deformity will not necessarily be eradicated.     

Ethnic Differences in Subcutaneous Adiposity and Waist Girth in Children and Adolescents

The purpose of this study was to examine ethnic differences in adiposity as measured by sum of skinfolds (SKF) and waist circumference (WC) in children and adolescents, after statistical adjustment for the BMI and age. A cross sectional sample of 3,218 (55% white, 49% male) children and adolescents aged 5–18 years who participated in the Bogalusa Heart Study (1992–1994) were included in these analyses. Sex‐specific ANOVAs, adjusted for BMI and age, for each 2‐year age group compared measures of adiposity (SKF and WC) between ethnic groups. No significant differences in the proportions of children and adolescents who were overweight and obese by ethnicity or sex were found. Mean SKF in normal weight (P < 0.0001) and overweight (P < 0.0001) categories was higher for white than black children of both sexes. Across most age categories, white boys and girls had significantly higher SKF than black boys and girls, respectively (P ≤ 0.05). Across most age categories, white boys had significantly higher WC than black boys (P ≤ 0.05) with no difference in the girls, when adjusted for BMI and age. Measures of adiposity in childhood and adolescence were significantly higher in white children compared to black children, when adjusted for BMI and age. Throughout childhood and adolescence, white boys and girls had higher SKF and white boys had higher WC. Differences in adiposity between ethnic groups should be considered in disease risk assessment and stratification as they are observed even for a given BMI level.