石质建筑的生物风化防治研究现状

石质建筑暴露在自然环境中不可避免地遭到各种因素的影响,其中由细菌、真菌、藻类、地衣和苔藓等引起的生物风化问题普遍存在,生物风化的长期累积效应会导致石质建筑在物理结构、化学性质和美学特征等方面发生不可逆的变化和损坏。因此,运用不同方法来减少生物对石质建筑的侵蚀是非常必要的。本文根据典型案例整理归纳了目前研究中生物风化治理的传统方法(包括热处理、激光和紫外线辐照、施用杀菌剂等)和几种新兴技术(包括物理方法和化学方法协同作用、植物提取物和纳米材料作为杀菌剂等),并对其优缺点及适用性进行了评述。本文还论述了石质建筑生物风化的防护对策和防治效果的检测方法,并对未来研究方向进行了展望,旨在为石质建筑的生物风化防治研究提供方法借鉴和参考。     

Biodeterioration of natural stone with special reference to nitrifying bacteria

An evaluation of field data from historical buildings in Germany showed that chemoorganotrophic bacteria are the most numerous microorganisms in building stones, followed by fungi and nitrifying bacteria. Chemoorganotrophic bacteria and fungi were present in almost every sample. Ammonia and nitrite oxidizers were found in 55 and 62% of the samples, respectively. Within months, natural stone was colonized by chemoorganotrophic microorganisms. The highest cell numbers were usually found near the surface. The colonization of natural stone by nitrifying bacteria took several years. The highest cell numbers were in some cases found underneath the surface. Nitrifying bacteria showed a preference for calcareous material with a medium pore radius between 1 and 10 m. Cell numbers of nitrifying bacteria did not correlate to the nitrate content of the stone material. We demonstrated that the stone inhabiting microflora can cause significant loss of nitrate by denitrification. Our data strongly suggested that microbial colonization of historical buildings was enhanced by anthropogenic air pollution. Samples taken from stone material with a pore radius 1 m had significantly higher cell numbers when they were covered with black crusts. A comparison of samples taken between 1990–1995 from buildings throughout Germany showed that in eastern Germany a significantly stronger colonization with facultatively methylotrophic bacteria and nitrifying bacteria existed. The same was true for natural stone from an urban exposure site when compared to material from a rural exposure site. Data from outdoor exposure and laboratory simulation experiments indicated that the colonization of calcareous stone by nitrifying bacteria was enhanced by chemical weathering.     

Cyanobacteria cause black staining of the National Museum of the American Indian Building, Washington, DC, USA

Microbial deterioration of stone is a widely recognised problem affecting monuments and buildings all over the world. In this paper, dark-coloured staining, putatively attributed to microorganisms, on areas of the National Museum of the American Indian Building, Washington, DC, USA, were studied. Observations by optical and electron microscopy of surfaces and cross sections of limestone indicated that biofilms, which penetrated up to a maximum depth of about 1?mm, were mainly composed of cyanobacteria, with the predominance of Gloeocapsa and Lyngbya. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis revealed that the microbial community also included eukaryotic algae (Trebouxiophyceae) and fungi (Ascomycota), along with a consortium of bacteria. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis showed the same elemental composition in stained and unstained areas of the samples, indicating that the discolouration was not due to abiotic chemical changes within the stone. The dark pigmentation of the stone was correlated with the high content of scytonemin, which was found in all samples.     

Bacterial diversity in biofilms on external surfaces of historic buildings in Porto Alegre

Summary Bacteria, along with other microorganisms, are present on and in rocks or historic stone monuments and can cause biodeterioration. Gram-positive bacteria, although present in lower numbers, are principally responsible for the damage caused. Four churches and the Vice-Governor’s office in Porto Alegre, all buildings of historic importance were studied, using traditional microbiological methods, with the aim of assessing the microdiversity on their external surfaces. A large number of microorganisms was found in each biofilm. Cell morphology varied at different points and with season. Most of the gram-positive bacteria were of the Bacillus genus, which are readily able to survive the dry conditions on these exposed surfaces. The isolates with the highest deteriorating ability, producing acids and surfactants with autoemulsifing power, were Bacillus isolates B4, B6 and B10 from Priest groups II, I and III, respectively. These were evaluated.     

山西兴县碧村遗址石器研究

我国新石器考古研究者往往将更多的注意力集中在磨制石器上,如近年兴起的对磨制石器的制作过程实验性研究及功能探讨,但对旧石器时代的打制石器很少给予足够地重视。本文通过对地处晋西黄土高原龙山时期的碧村遗址2015年来发现的打制石器和部分磨制石器的观察与初步研究发现,打制石器虽是碧村遗址众多手工业中的一个小项,但其存在表明了石器文化传统有着强劲的生命力——从旧石器时代一直延续至新石器时代的龙山时期,狩猎采集也是龙山时期晋西黄土高原人类的辅助性生计方式。     

百色大梅遗址第一地点发掘简报

大梅遗址位于百色右江区东南的右江北岸,最初发现于1982年。该遗址包括三个地点,分别位于Ⅱ、Ⅲ、Ⅳ级河流阶地上。2005年8月至2006年1月,广西文物保护与考古研究所对该遗址进行抢救性考古发掘,其中第一地点(A区)发掘面积1100m~2,第二地点(包括B、C、E区)发掘面积1900m~2,第三地点(D区)发掘面1000m~2,总揭露面积4000m~2。该点出土石制品314件,包括砾石、石核、石片、石锤、石器等。石制品原料以石英岩为主,剥片和修理主要采用锤击法,工具多用砾石直接加工而成,类型有砍砸器、手镐、刮削器、尖状器等,刮削器数量最多。根据地层和出土石制品的特征推断,第一地点的时代应为旧石器时代晚期。     

三峡洋安渡遗址石制品研究

洋安渡遗址位于重庆市奉节县,埋藏于长江右岸第2级阶地的上部,时代为新石器时代晚期。该遗址出土了丰富的石制品,包括石锤、石核、石片、碎屑和石器;其它遗物包括以大溪文化类型为主的陶片和大量动物残骸。石制品的原料来源为遗址附近长江河漫滩的砾石,岩性以石英砂岩为主。石片生产技术主要为以生产零台面石片为目标的摔碰法。石器类型包括砍砸器、刮削器、石斧毛坯、磨石和磨光石斧等;砍砸器和刮削器全部单面加工,技术熟练,加工简单,刃缘较长;石斧毛坯虽为打制,但形状规整,加工精致,是石器加工的重点;磨制石器数量少且残断。洋安渡遗址的石器兼有打制和磨制两大类,虽然石器加工的重点为磨制石斧,但打制技术依然重要,其一方面为磨制石斧打制合适的毛坯雏形,另一方面加工砍砸器、刮削器等打制石器满足临时和补充的使用。洋安渡遗址出土的石制品为了解长江三峡地区新石器时代的石器技术提供了直接的材料。     

The ATP-bioluminescence method for a rapid evaluation of the microbial activity in the stone materials of monuments

The examination of the state of conservation of works of art in stone includes the assessment of the presence of microbiological agents on the surface of the decayed monuments. These microorganisms can accelerate, via their metabolic activity, the decay process of the stone surface. At present this assessment is made with the traditional techniques for the microbiological examination of the soil, provides results only after a delay of 30 days. A bioluminescent ATP assay should provide rapid quantitation of actively growing organisms on the surface of a stone monument, and the applicability of this technique was verified on some samples of sandstone (Pietraforte) collected from a historic building (the Strozzi Palace) in Florence. These samples were evaluated for the amount of the ATP and the total number of microorganisms. The results obtained suggest that the bioluminescent assay could be suitable for detecting and quantitating the presence of microorganisms in a sample of stone.     

河南淅川坑南遗址调查发现的石制品

河南淅川坑南遗址位于丹江口库区,丹江口库区是近年来旧石器考古发掘和研究的重点地区。2016年对坑南遗址发掘前,在周边调查发现旧石器时代石制品209件,石制品类型包括石核、石片、石叶和石器等。剥片方法有锤击法和砸击法。石器毛坯类型多为片状,少量为块状、砾石。石器修理方式以正向为主,其次为反向和复向。初步判断其时代最早能到旧石器时代中期。新发现对于探讨晚更新世南北旧石器过渡地带的特点,具有重要意义。     

后腹腔镜输尿管切开取石15例体会

目的:探索腹膜后途径腹腔镜输尿管切开取石的方法。方法:采用后腹腔镜输尿管切开取石治疗输尿管中上结石患者15例。结果:13例成功,2例失败改为开放手术。手术平均时间约97分钟,术中出血约120ml,术后平均住院时间6、1天。结论:经腹膜后腹腔镜输尿管切开取石术是治疗输尿管中上结石的一种安全有效的手术方式,可取代部分开放手术,具推广价值。     

石质文物地衣生物腐蚀及防治的研究进展

本文主要从生物因素方面考虑,分析了导致石质文物病害的主要原因和机理,并综述了国内外石质文物保护的现状、防治和修复方法。地衣是引起石质文物腐蚀的关键生物类群,与国外相比,目前国内专门针对地衣进行石质文物防治的研究鲜见报道。作者建议,石质文物的地衣生物腐蚀及防治研究应从以下方面入手：（1）石质文物地衣必须首先进行系统的种类调查;（2）对地衣腐蚀石质文物的机理进行深入研究;（3）探寻地衣病害安全有效的去除方法;（4）逐步探索地衣病害修复后的监测和预防方法。     

The physical characteristics and usage patterns of stone axe and pounding hammers used by long‐tailed macaques in the Andaman Sea region of Thailand

Stone hammering in natural conditions has been extensively investigated in chimpanzees and bearded capuchins. In contrast, knowledge of stone tool use in wild Old World monkeys has been limited to anecdotal reports, despite having known for over 120 years that Macaca fascicularis aurea use stone tools to process shelled foods from intertidal zones on islands in the Andaman Sea. Our report is the first scientific investigation to look at the stone tools used by these macaques. We observed they were skilled tool users and used stone tools daily. They selected tools with differing qualities for differing food items, and appeared to use at least two types of stone tools. Pounding hammers were used to crush shellfish and nuts on anvils and axe hammers were used to pick or chip at oysters attached to boulders or trees. We found significant physical differences between these two tools. Tools at oyster beds were smaller and exhibited scarring patterns focused more often on the points, whereas tools found at anvils were larger and showed more scarring on the broader surfaces. We also observed grip differences between the two tool types. Lastly, macaques struck targets with axe hammers more rapidly and over a wider range of motion than with pounding hammers. Both our behavioral and lithic data support that axe hammers might be used with greater control and precision than pounding hammers. Hand‐sized axe hammers were used for controlled chipping to crack attached oysters, and larger pounding hammers were used to crush nuts and unattached shellfish on anvils. In addition to stones, they also used hand‐sized auger shells (Turritella attenuata) as picks to axe attached oysters. Pound hammering appears similar to the stone tools used by chimpanzees and capuchins, but axe hammering has not yet been documented in other nonhuman primates in natural conditions. Am. J. Primatol. 71:594–608, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Of stones and monkeys: testing ecological constraints on stone handling, a behavioral tradition in Japanese macaques

Japanese macaques are known to manipulate stones by displaying various seemingly functionless behavioral patterns, including carrying a stone, rubbing two stones together, or gathering several stones into a pile. This form of solitary object play called stone handling (SH) is a behavioral tradition in Japanese macaques, showing striking intertroop differences in frequency and form. Here, we evaluated two ecologically based hypotheses invoked to account for these differences. We hypothesized that the occurrence and form of SH would be affected by stone availability and the degree of terrestriality. We used standardized sampling methods to assess differences in SH and terrestriality among four captive and six free-ranging troops of Japanese macaques, and determine site-specific stone availability. Although we demonstrated that SH is almost exclusively a terrestrial activity, our comparative analyses showed that the number of stones readily available and the relative amount of time spent on the ground by the macaques were not associated with the intertroop differences in the occurrence of SH. Failure to accept the terrestriality and stone availability hypotheses suggests that the performance of SH and the motivation to engage in this activity are both more diverse and more complex than the direct links to time spent on the ground or the number of stones locally available. Other environmental influences and sociodemographic factors should be jointly considered to identify the sources of variation in SH, as a beginning to better understand the constraints on the appearance and subsequent diffusion of stone-use traditions in nonhuman primates. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2008. (c) 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Bioremediation of weathered-building stone surfaces

Atmospheric pollution and weathering of stone surfaces in urban historic buildings frequently results in disfigurement or damage by salt crust formation (often gypsum), presenting opportunities for bioremediation using microorganisms. Conventional techniques for the removal of these salt crusts from stone have several disadvantages: they can cause colour changes; adversely affect the movement of salts within the stone structure; or remove excessive amounts of the original surface. Although microorganisms are commonly associated with detrimental effects to the integrity of stone structures, there is growing evidence that they can be used to treat this type of stone deterioration in objects of historical and cultural significance. In particular, the ability and potential of different microorganisms to either remove sulfate crusts or form sacrificial layers of calcite that consolidate mineral surfaces have been demonstrated. Current research suggests that bioremediation has the potential to offer an additional technology to conservators working to restore stone surfaces in heritage buildings.     

河南舞阳贾湖遗址出土石器的微痕分析

石器作为人类物质文化的记录者,在史前人类的生产生活中占据着重要地位,对石器功能和使用方式的探讨是考古学关注的问题之一。目前国内石器研究的主要手段是从器物形态出发,进行类型学的研究,针对石器具体功能及使用方式的实证研究较为缺乏,对磨制石器的研究尤为不足。有鉴于此,本研究以中原地区舞阳贾湖遗址出土的磨制石器为研究对象,利用微痕分析和实验考古的方法,对石器的功能、使用方式及加工对象进行分析和判断。结果表明:石镰的主要功能是收割禾本科植物;石刀主要用于加工禾本科植物、木材和兽骨等;石斧的功能主要是加工木材,另外还可能承担加工兽皮和兽骨的工作;石锛的主要功能与木作有关;石凿在形态上有所区别,但其加工对象主要是木材;石铲的功能以掘土为主。微痕分析的结果使我们对贾湖聚落磨制石器的功能有了客观的认识,可以看出石器的功能并不单一,广泛存在着"一器多用"的现象。本研究从石器使用的角度,揭示了史前人类的生产活动和行为特点,同时也为研究先民的生业经济状况提供了重要材料。     

Functional morphology of the stone canal in the sea urchin Eucidaris (Echinodermata: Echinoidea)

The lack of mesocoelomic pores and the existence of a stone canal connecting proto-and mesocoel are characteristic peculiarities of echinoderms in contrast with the situation in other trimeric archicoelomates. The ultrastructure of the stone canal has been studied in order to understand its function in the strategically important position between two coelomic spaces with different functions. The epithelium of the Eucidaris (Echinoidea) stone canal is composed of three cell types: (1) ciliated cells, (2) cells with long basal processes containing myofilaments, and (3) granulated cells, which may represent secretory neurons. Nerve fibres of two types are common in the epithelium. We consider the stone canal to be a structure controlling fluid transport; its wall may exert peristaltic movements or tonic contractions and dilations which are under control of the nervous system. The ciliated cells additionally may have phagocytotic capacities. Similarities with the fine structure of the wall of the mesocoelomic pores in the pterobranch Cephalodiscus are discussed.     

术中胆道镜诊治肝胆管结石的应用（附64例报告）

术中应用胆道镜治疗胆道疾病６４例,使残余结石发生率由１１％下降至２％左右,认为纤维胆道镜对明确诊断减少残余结石的发生有重要价值。     

Quinic acid esters of hydroxycinnamic acids in stone and pome fruit

In 21 varieties of stone and pome fruit the quinic acid esters of caffeic, p-coumaric and ferulic acids have been determined by capillary GC and HPLC. The total content of hydroxycinnamoylquinic acids was found to be between 80 and almost 900 ppm fr. wt. The results confirm that the main hydroxycinnamic acid compound in pome fruit is 5′-caffeoylquinic acid, whereas in stone fruit it is 3′-caffeoylquinic acid. Our investigations also show the regular occurrence of 3′-p-coumaroylquinic acid in stone fruit species. In sweet and sour cherries it can be the main component in concentrations of 100–200 ppm. Significant amounts of feruloylquinic acid are only found in plums and apricots. The 4′-isomers of all acids occur only in very small concentrations with the exception of 4′-p-coumaroylquinic acid in apples, the content of which exceeds that of 5′-p-coumaroylquinic acid.     

库尔勒香梨果实石细胞发育及其对果实肉质影响初探

采用植物解剖学方法对库尔勒香梨果实石细胞形成过程和分布状况进行观察研究,结果表明,库尔勒香梨果实中石细胞从化后15d开始形成,随着时间的推移石细胞的直径和密度逐渐增大,花后110d左右直径达到最大值,花后50d左右密度达到高峰．之后随着果实的增大与成熟度的提高,石细胞团的密度表现下降的趋势。石细胞的分布特点是石细胞团以近果心和近果皮处分布密度高,直径大,中层果肉中石细胞团密度低,直径小。与其它品种相比,成熟库尔勒香梨的行细胞团密度最低,含有较大石细胞的含量相对较少,肉质较细。     

Detection of Prunus necrotic ring spot virus in plum,cherry and almond by serological and molecular techniques from India

Stone fruits are cultivated in the temperate and sub-temperate regions of India. During surveys in stone fruit growing areas, viral symptoms were observed in almond, cherry and plum. These samples were brought to the laboratory for further detection at serological and molecular levels to check the presence of virus. In the present study, incidence of PNRSV is reported on plum (Prunus domestica), almond (Prunus dulcis) and cherry (Prunus avium) using serological and molecular techniques. Coat protein gene of PNRSV was amplified from almond, cherry and plum. This is the first molecular evidence of PNRSV on these stone fruits reported from India.