Antimicrobial proteins in sterilised human milk.

Human milk contains factors such as IgA and lactoferrin that increase the newborn infant''s resistance to infection. Preterm infants are fed pooled milk, which is normally sterilised by heating. After standard heat sterilisation IgA and lactoferrin were undetectable in milk samples. Pasteurisation also sterilised milk samples even after heavy artificial contamination and did not damage the proteins. Gamma-irradiation sterilised equally effectively but caused some denaturation of IgA and lactoferrin. Since most of the milk samples were sterile or had only light contamination with skin bacteria, there seems to be no need for routine sterilisation. If sterilisation is necessary, the method used should be chosen to minimise damage to milk proteins.     

10-year survey of 485 sterilisations. Part I--Sterilisation or hysterectomy?

A survey was made of all sterilisations performed in an obstetric and gynaecological unit in Dunfermline in 1965-74 to determine the outcome and complications. Altogether 547 women were sterilised by the modified Pomeroy method, and 485 (88.7%) were interviewed and examined. No sterilisation was followed by serious complications, and the incidence of even minor complications was low (4.12%). There were no subsequent pregnancies. Altogether 57 women had to be referred for gynaecological operations in the years after sterilisation but only 18 of these had to have hysterectomies. At interview 59 women were found to have gynaecological symptoms (menstrual disorders in 46), and examination showed that 83 women had a gynaecological condition, which was in most cases unsuspected by the patient. Most of these conditions were minor but three women had carcinoma-in-situ of the cervix. Although 46 women suffered menstrual disorders after sterilisation 104 had done so at some time before the operation. These results therefore offer little support for the wider use of hysterectomy as a form of sterilisation.     

Coerced first sexual intercourse and selected reproductive health outcomes among young women in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Coercion may play an important role in compelling young women to engage in sexual intercourse at an early age. With a decline in age at first intercourse and increased reporting of coercive first sex, concerns of adverse reproductive health outcomes such as unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV, have become important issues, particularly in the context of a high HIV prevalence. This paper uses data collected in 2001 from the second round of a longitudinal study of 1130 sexually experienced young women in KwaZulu-Natal to investigate the relationship between coerced first intercourse and selected reproductive health outcomes and behaviours. Nearly 46% of all sexually experienced young women had reported that their first sexual encounter had been coerced. Young women who reported being coerced at first sex were significantly more likely to be Black and living in an urban area. Those who had been coerced at first sex were also more likely to report having had an STI and having experienced unintended pregnancy, than those who had not been coerced at first sex. Coercion at first sex is an important social and public health problem that has a serious impact on the reproductive health and behaviours of young women. Interventions should directly address the issue of sexual coercion by ensuring young women are aware of their reproductive rights.     

The Impact of Sex Work on Women’s Personal Romantic Relationships and the Mental Separation of Their Work and Personal Lives: A Mixed-Methods Study

Background

Very limited research has been undertaken on sex workers’ personal romantic relationships and the impact the nature of their work has on their relationships. This exploratory study aimed to explore the impact sex work has on women’s personal romantic relationships and the use of mental separation as a coping mechanism to balance the two aspects of their lives.

Methods

Fifty-five women working in the indoor sex industry in Melbourne, Australia, were recruited to complete a self-report questionnaire about various aspects of their work, including the impact of sex work on their personal relationships. Questionnaires were completed anonymously and included both closed and open-ended questions. A further six women were interviewed to ‘member check’ the accuracy of the questionnaire findings.

Results

Most women (78%) reported that, overall, sex work affected their personal romantic relationships in predominantly negative ways, mainly relating to issues stemming from lying, trust, guilt and jealousy. A small number of women reported positive impacts from sex work including improved sexual self-esteem and confidence. Just under half of women were in a relationship at the time of the study and, of these, 51% reported their partner was aware of the nature of their work. Seventy-seven percent of single women chose to remain single due to the nature of their work. Many women used mental separation as a coping mechanism to manage the tensions between sex work and their personal relationships. Member checking validated the accuracy of the questionnaire data.

Conclusion

This exploratory study identified a number of ways in which sex work impacts negatively on women’s personal romantic relationships. The findings of this study support the need for further studies to be undertaken to determine if the findings are reflected in a larger, more representative sample of Australian sex workers and should be considered in the context of any future intervention and support programs aimed at addressing the tensions sex workers experience between their work and personal relationships. Greater public awareness and education programs aimed at addressing the negative stigma associated with the sex industry may go some way towards easing the issues faced by women in their personal relationships.     

Stressful life events, social support networks, and the physical and mental health of urban black adults

The direct and the buffering effects of social support networks have been documented, but few studies have examined their health outcomes for blacks and, specifically, the differences in physical and mental health. This study uses six measures of social support to examine the relationships of social support to health outcomes for black males and females. The data are from a community sample of 451 urban black adults. Results show significant differences by sex according to source of social support and particular health outcomes. Number of nearby relatives and perceived social support have direct and buffering effects, respectively, on mental health for black females, but no significant influences emerge for black males. On the other hand, the number of confidants for black males and the degree of religiosity among black females were inversely related to physical health, suggesting differences in conceptual models of social support for mental and physical health.     

Giving or Receiving Something for Sex: A Cross-Sectional Study of Transactional Sex among Ugandan University Students

Objective

This study sought to determine the prevalence of transactional sex among university students in Uganda and to assess the possible relationship between transactional sex and sexual coercion, physical violence, mental health, and alcohol use.

Methods

In 2010, 1954 undergraduate students at a Ugandan university responded to a self-administered questionnaire that assessed mental health, substance use, physical violence and sexual behaviors including sexual coercion and transactional sex. The prevalence of transactional sex was assessed and logistic regression analysis was performed to measure the associations between various risk factors and reporting transactional sex.

Results

Approximately 25% of the study sample reported having taken part in transactional sex, with more women reporting having accepted money, gifts or some compensation for sex, while more men reporting having paid, given a gift or otherwise compensated for sex. Sexual coercion in men and women was significantly associated with having accepted money, gifts or some compensation for sex. Men who were victims of physical violence in the last 12 months had higher probability of having accepted money, gifts or some compensation for sex than other men. Women who were victims of sexual coercion reported greater likelihood of having paid, given a gift or otherwise compensated for sex. Respondents who had been victims of physical violence in last 12 months, engaged in heavy episodic drinking and had poor mental health status were more likely to have paid, given a gift or otherwise compensated for sex.

Conclusions

University students in Uganda are at high risk of transactional sex. Young men and women may be equally vulnerable to the risks and consequences of transactional sex and should be included in program initiatives to prevent transactional sex. The role of sexual coercion, physical violence, mental health, and alcohol use should be considered when designing interventions for countering transactional sex.     

Differential indicators of loneliness among elderly. The importance of type of partner relationship, partner history, health, socioeconomic status and social relations

Using data from the 1992 NESTOR-survey 'Living arrangements and social networks of older adults' (N = 4494), the aim of the present study is to identify specific categories of older adults who are most vulnerable to loneliness. By looking at different types of partner relationships (first, second, and third marriages; consensual unions; partners who are not household members) and at partner histories (never married, ever divorced, ever widowed, remarried), this study elaborates on previous research which has tended to look only at the presence versus the absence of partner relationships. Findings indicate that different types of partner relationships provide differential protection against loneliness. There appears to be a 'shadow of the past' of a previous divorce or widowhood in second and third partnerships, which accounts for generally higher levels of loneliness. Single men tend to be more lonely than single women. Moreover, there are no differences in loneliness between men who have always been single and those previously married. Among single women, differences in partner history are relevant: never married single women tend to be least vulnerable to loneliness. The differences in loneliness between older adults with different types of partner relationships and partner histories are only partially attributable to network and social participation differences. The latter independently contribute to the explanation of loneliness. The role of non-social determinants (health and socioeconomic position) is also examined. The results underscore the socially isolating effects of sensory impairments. Older adults with functional limitations, and those with visual or auditory problems tend to be more lonely, findings which are only partially attributable to differences in the number and quality of social relationships. Socioeconomic circumstances primarily have an indirect influence on loneliness. Those with higher levels of educational attainment and higher incomes tend to have more extensive social networks and are therefore less prone to loneliness.     

Mental Health and Related Factors after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami

Mental health is one of the most important issues facing disaster survivors. The purpose of this study is to determine the prevalence and correlates of mental health problems in survivors of the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami at 6–11 months after the disaster. The questionnaire and notification were sent to the survivors in three municipalities in the Tohoku area of the Northern part of Honshu, Japan’s largest island, between September 2011 and February 2012. Questionnaires were sent to 12,772, 11,411, and 18,648 residents in the Yamada, Otsuchi, and Rikuzentakata municipalities, respectively. Residents were asked to bring the completed questionnaires to their health check-ups. A total of 11,124 or (26.0%) of them underwent health check-ups, and 10,198 were enrolled. We excluded 179 for whom a K6 score was missing and two who were both 17 years of age, which left 10,025 study participants (3,934 male and 6,091 female, mean age 61.0 years). K6 was used to measure mental health problems. The respondents were classified into moderate (5–12 of K6) and serious mental health problems (13+). A total of 42.6% of the respondents had moderate or serious mental health problems. Multivariate analysis showed that women were significantly associated with mental health problems. Other variables associated with mental health problems were: younger male, health complaints, severe economic status, relocations, and lack of a social network. An interaction effect of sex and economic status on severe mental health problems was statistically significant. Our findings suggest that mental health problems were prevalent in survivors of the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami. For men and women, health complaints, severe economic status, relocations, and lack of social network may be important risk factors of poor mental health. For men, interventions focusing on economic support may be particularly useful in reducing mental health problems after the disaster.     

Single women, voluntary childlessness and perceptions about life and marriage

42 single women who want to be childless, 18 who desire a 1 child family, and 42 who want 2 children responded to questions about the quality of their present lives and nature of future marriages. The groups of Australian women were closely matched for age and education, and on current quality of life there were few differences. They had similar levels of positive and negative affect, and described life as enjoyable, interesting, and contented. Those wanting to be childless, however, had rated life as less optimistic and less loving, and also as currently somewhat less satisfying, but life satisfaction was still quite high. These early deciders of childlessness, and those wanting only 1 child, wanted to be financially and socially more independent in future marriage type relationships than women wanting at least 2 children. They also expected to follow interests and careers to their fullest, wanted more role innovative partners, and were somewhat less concerned about home ownership, living to a budget, and keeping contact with family and friends. All women placed considerable importance on the need for trust, self-disclosure, and open communication in a relationship, although the voluntary childless rated more highly the need for intellectual stimulation and for each partner to be happy about the success of their mate. Compared to women wanting 2 children, those wanting to be childless expected a partner to perform a wide range of non-traditional roles in the home.     

An evolutionary analysis of psychological pain following rape:: I. The effects of victim's age and marital status

The typical approach used to identify and characterize adaptations is discussed briefly, and then it is applied to psychological changes associated with the psychological pain experienced by rape victims. It has been hypothesized that mental pain may reflect psychological adaptation that is designed to detect and cope with the occurence of social problems that reduce an individual's inclusive fitness in human evolutionary history. According to the hypothesis, mental pain is brought about by social tragedies in the lives of individuals and focuses the attention of individuals on the events surrounding the pain, promoting correction of the pain-causing events and their avoidance in the future. The hypothesis applied to rape victims proposes that in human evolutionary history raped females had increased fitness as a result of mental pain, because the pain forced them to focus attention on the fitness-reducing circumstances surrounding rape, which are discussed. Some of the hypothesis' predictions about the psychological pain of rape victims are examined using a data set of 790 rape victims in Philadelphia (USA) who were interviewed about their psychological traumatization within five days after the assault. The analyses indicate that, as predicted, a victim's age and marital status are proximate causes of the magnitude of psychological pain following rape. Reproductive-aged women appear to be more severely traumatized by rape than older women or girls and married women more than unmarried women. The results presented suggest that the psychology that regulates mental pain processes information about age and mateship status in the event of a women's rape.     

Demographic and social characteristics of adults with cystic fibrosis in the United Kingdom.

OBJECTIVE--To obtain information about social and demographic characteristics and lifestyle of adult patients with cystic fibrosis, including those who do not attend major specialist clinics. DESIGN--Confidential self completion postal questionnaire to adult patients with cystic fibrosis, asking about social and demographic characteristics, social class and occupation, employment, education, insurance and social security benefits, symptom severity, and medical care. SETTING--National association for adults with cystic fibrosis. SUBJECTS--1052 adult members of the Association of Cystic Fibrosis Adults UK, accounting for 68% of those with cystic fibrosis in the United Kingdom population over 16 years of age and over 80% of those over 25 in June 1990. RESULTS--The response rate was 82% (397 women, 423 men). Most adults with cystic fibrosis were found to be living fulfilling lives into adulthood. Significantly fewer men were married or cohabiting than women (110 (26%) men, 175 (44%) women). 420 (55%) responders were working, and of these 235 (56%) had less than two weeks'' sick leave a year. Half of those not employed gave ill health as the reason. Revealing that they had cystic fibrosis at job interviews reduced likelihood of being employed for those with mild to moderate disease. People with cystic fibrosis had been less successful than the general population in achieving O level or equivalent qualifications, but more successful in achieving A level or higher qualifications. Achievement of any qualifications enhanced employment prospects irrespective of disease severity. CONCLUSION--Contrary to an image of chronic ill health and disability, a high proportion of adults with cystic fibrosis are living full and productive lives.     

Psychiatric Aspects of Female Sterilization

Follow-up of 151 women who had been sterilized for social or gynaecological reasons one to three years earlier showed that 146 were completely satisfied with the results of the operation on their health and on their sexual relationships with their husbands. The five who were dissatisfied either wished they could still conceive or found the operation had not produced the effect hoped for. On the basis of this study we believe that adverse psychiatric sequelae of sterilization can be kept to a minimum with careful selection of patients. Women should be over 30 or if younger should have had two or more children, and the operation should not be performed at childbirth, in the neonatal period, or during a postabortive depression.     

The effect of divorce on infant mortality in a remote area of Bangladesh

The process of divorce is usually lengthy and hazardous, and can start quarrels that can lead to the abuse of women and their children. This study examines the effects of divorce on neonatal and postneonatal mortality of babies born before and after divorce in Teknaf, a remote area of Bangladesh. The longitudinal demographic surveillance system (DSS) followed 1,762 Muslim marriages in 1982-83 for 5 years to record divorce, deaths of spouse, emigration and births. It recorded 2,696 live births during the follow-up period, and their survival status during infancy. Logistic regression models were used to estimate the effect of divorce on neonatal and postneonatal mortality, controlling for maternal age at birth, parity, sex of the child and household economic status. The odds of neonatal and postneonatal deaths among babies born after divorce or less than 12 months before mothers were divorced were more than double the odds of those born to mothers of intact marriages. The odds of postneonatal deaths were two times higher among babies born more than 12 months before divorce happens than their peers. The high mortality of infants born before and after mothers were divorced may reflect how abusive marriage and divorce increase the vulnerability of women and children in rural Bangladesh. Divorce and abuse of women are difficult and intractable social and health problems that must be addressed.     

Female sex worker social networks and STI/HIV prevention in South China

Background

Reducing harm associated with selling and purchasing sex is an important public health priority in China, yet there are few examples of sustainable, successful programs to promote sexual health among female sex workers. The limited civil society and scope of nongovernmental organizations circumscribe the local capacity of female sex workers to collectively organize, advocate for their rights, and implement STI/HIV prevention programs. The purpose of this study was to examine social networks among low-income female sex workers in South China to determine their potential for sexual health promotion.

Methods/Principal Findings

Semi-structured interviews with 34 low-income female sex workers and 28 health outreach members were used to examine how social relationships affected condom use and negotiation, STI/HIV testing and health-seeking behaviors, and dealing with violent clients. These data suggested that sex worker''s laoxiang (hometown social connections) were more powerful than relationships between women selling sex at the same venue in establishing the terms and risk of commercial sex. Female sex workers from the same hometown often migrated to the city with their laoxiang and these social connections fulfilled many of the functions of nongovernmental organizations, including collective mobilization, condom promotion, violence mitigation, and promotion of health-seeking behaviors. Outreach members observed that sex workers accompanied by their laoxiang were often more willing to accept STI/HIV testing and trust local sexual health services.

Conclusions/Significance

Organizing STI/HIV prevention services around an explicitly defined laoxiang social network may provide a strong foundation for sex worker health programs. Further research on dyadic interpersonal relationships between female sex workers, group dynamics and norm establishment, and the social network characteristics are needed.     

Sexual mores,promiscuity and ‘prostitution’ in Botswana

In Botswana there is a large, and increasing, number of women who do not marry but have one or several lovers simultaneously and have gifts from these menas an importantpart of their income. It is argued that the processual and practical character of traditional marriages, combined with weak social institutions, provides those who wish the basis on which to legitimise such informal sexual relationships. Such practices represent a new sexual morality, whose conditions are further explained by treating the term ‘prostitution’ in a comparative perspective. Tensions arise from the new constellation of sexual mores, generating fundamental social changes — most notably substantial economic transfers from men to women, loss of male power, and changing gendered identities. Lastly, the practices described are discussed in relation to the AIDS epidemic.     

Production of a sterilised decellularised tendon allograft for clinical use

Application of a high-level decontamination or sterilisation procedure and cell removal technique to tendon allograft can reduce the concerns of disease transmission, immune reaction, and may improve remodelling of the graft after implantation. The decellularised matrix can also be used as a matrix for tendon tissue engineering. One such sterilisation factor, Peracetic acid (PAA) has the advantage of not producing harmful reaction residues. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of PAA treatment and a cell removal procedure on the production of tendon matrix. Human patellar tendons, thawed from frozen were treated respectively as: Group 1, control with no treatment; Group 2, sterilised with PAA (0.1 % (w/v) PAA for 3 h) Group 3, decellularised (incubation successively in hypotonic buffer, 0.1 % (w/v) sodium dodecyl sulphate, and a nuclease solution); Group 4, decellularised and PAA sterilised. Histological analysis showed that no cells were visible after the decellularisation treatment. The integrity of tendon structure was maintained after decellularisation and PAA sterilisation, however, the collagen waveform was slightly loosened. No contact cytotoxicity was found in any of the groups. Determination of de-natured collagen showed no significant increase when compared with the control. This suggested that the decellularisation and sterilisation processing procedures did not compromise the major properties of the tendon. The sterilised, decellularised tendon could be suitable for clinical use.     

The benefits of social capital: close social bonds among female baboons enhance offspring survival

Sociality has evolved in many animal taxa, but primates are unusual because they establish highly differentiated bonds with other group members. Such bonds are particularly pronounced among females in species like baboons, with female philopatry and male dispersal. These relationships seem to confer a number of short-term benefits on females, and sociality enhances infant survival in some populations. However, the long-term consequences of social bonds among adult females have not been well established. Here we provide the first direct evidence that social relationships among female baboons convey fitness benefits. In a group of free-ranging baboons, Papio cynocephalus ursinus, the offspring of females who formed strong social bonds with other females lived significantly longer than the offspring of females who formed weaker social bonds. These survival benefits were independent of maternal dominance rank and number of kin and extended into offspring adulthood. In particular, females who formed stronger bonds with their mothers and adult daughters experienced higher offspring survival rates than females who formed weaker bonds. For females lacking mothers or adult daughters, offspring survival was closely linked to bonds between maternal sisters. These results parallel those from human studies, which show that greater social integration is generally associated with reduced mortality and better physical and mental health, particularly for women.     

The impact of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) program on radiation and tissue banking in Peru

The tissue bank “Rosa Guerzoni Chambergo” (RGCTB) located at the Child’s Health Institute was inaugurated in 1996, with the financial and technical support of the IAEA program on radiation and tissue banking. Since 1998, the biological bandage of fresh and lyophilised pigskin, amnion and bone tissue is processed routinely in this bank. In all cases, the tissue is sterilised with the use of Cobalt-60 radiation, process carried out at the Laboratories of Irradiation of the Peruvian Institute of Nuclear Energy (IPEN). The tissue bank in the Child’s Health Institute helped to save lives in an accident occurred in Lima, when a New Year’s fireworks celebration ran out of control in January 2002. Nearly 300 people died in the tragic blaze and hundreds more were seriously burned and injured. Eight Lima hospitals and clinics suddenly were faced with saving the lives of severely burned men, women and children. Fortunately, authorities were ready to respond to the emergency. More than 1,600 dressings were sterilised and supplied to Lima surgeons. The efforts helped save the lives of patients who otherwise might not have survived the Lima fire. Between 1998 and September 2007, 35,012 tissue grafts were produced and irradiated. Radiation sterilised tissues are used by 20 national medical institutions as well as 17 private health institutions. The tissue bank established in Peru with the support of the IAEA is now producing the following tissues: pigskin dressings, fresh and freeze-dried; bone allografts, chips, wedges and powdered, and amnion dressings air-dried. It is also now leading the elaboration of national standards, assignment being entrusted by ONDT (Organización Nacional de Donación y Transplantes; National Organisation on Donation and Transplant). This among other will permit the accreditation of the tissue bank. In this task is also participating IPEN.     

MSM and HIV/AIDS in China

This article profiles current status of spread and control of HIV/AIDS in China. China has a significant population of MSM (men who have sex with men) and they have been becoming very much alive in many ways since 1990s due to recent social changes. Some surveys indicate that great many of MSM are engaged in high-risk behaviors. In addition, majority of MSM have also experienced sexual encounters with women sometimes in their lives, which possibly contribute to spread of HIV to women. Some reports documented that HIV is becoming rampant among MSM since more than 1% of them are now infected. Political, cultural and custom elements could hinder intervention activities against HIV spread among MSM. Fortunately, many cities in China have seen that MSM were in cooperation with responsible institutions carrying out certain intervention measures. The general situation is promising. The authors forecast that the fast HIV spread among MSM of China could possibly be halted within several years when the authorities become more sensible to this issue, health service institutions offer unswerving efforts toward the MSM community and those who involve in MSM undertakes necessary responsibilities.     

MSM and HIV/AIDS in China

INTRODUCTION The term MSM (men who have sex with men) was introduced into mainland China in 2000. Homosexuals, without identifying gender, were used previously to de- scribe MSM by authorities, the public and even professionals. The first confirmed MSM ca…