Island urbanization and its ecological consequences: A case study in the Zhoushan Island,East China

Islands, which provide multiple ecosystem services, are subject to increasing urbanization pressure due to the ongoing marine development, especially in developing countries. Insights into the island urbanization mechanism and its ecological consequences are essential to sustainable development. In the present paper, the satellite images, nighttime lights, and topographic data were integrated to characterize the spatially explicit urbanization process and mechanism during 1995–2011 in the Zhoushan Island, East China. Furthermore, the corresponding spatially explicit changes in ecosystem services, including net primary productivity (NPP), carbon sequestration and oxygen production (CSOP), nutrient cycling, crop production, and habitat quality, were quantified based on the Carnegie–Ames–Stanford Approach (CASA) and Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) models. The results showed that the Zhoushan Island had experienced a rapid urbanization over the years, with significant urban encroachment on the farmland and tidal flat. Moreover, the urban land expansion was positively correlated with that of the nighttime lights and negatively correlated with the elevation, slope, and the distance to shoreline. These indicated that the urban expansion was resulted from the enhancement of socioeconomic activities, and concentrated in the near-shore areas with low altitude and gentle slope. The urban encroachment on other land use types resulted in a decrease of 3.4 Gg C a⁻¹ NPP, 8.7 Gg a⁻¹ CSOP, 13.2 Gg a⁻¹ nutrient cycling, and 12.3 t a⁻¹ crop production, respectively. In addition, the habitat quality in 11% area of this island degraded substantially. Therefore, to achieve sustainable development of islands, it is urgent to implement more stringent policies, such as island spatial regulation, environmental impact assessment, intensive land use, and urban greening, etc.     

The influence of rapid urbanization and land use changes on terrestrial carbon sources/sinks in Guangzhou,China

Complex changes in carbon sources and sinks caused by rapid urbanization have been observed with extensive changes in the quantity, structure, and spatial pattern of land use types. Based on the modified Carnegie-Ames-Stanford Approach model and on gray relational analysis, we analyzed the influence of land use changes on carbon sinks and emissions in Guangzhou from 2000 to 2012. The aim was to identify suitable options for built-up land expansion that would allow for minimal carbon losses. The key results were as follows: (1) Built-up land increased by 118.91% in Guangzhou city over the study period, with this expansion taking the form of concentric circles extending around the old Yuexiu district. (2) Carbon emissions over the period of analysis significantly exceeded carbon sink capabilities. The total carbon sink decreased by 30.02%, from 535.40 × 10³ t to 374.6 × 10³ t. Total carbon emissions increased by 1.89 times, from 13.73 × 10⁶ t to 39.67 × 10⁶ t; 80% of carbon emissions were derived from energy consumption. (3) There were large differences in the extent of carbon sink losses at different scales of built-up land expansion and land use change. In Guangzhou, the loss of carbon sink is small when cultivated land (though not prime farmland) and water bodies are converted to built-up land on a small scale. The loss of carbon sink is much smaller when grasslands are converted to built-up land on a large scale. However, forested land, which has excellent carbon sink functions, should not be converted. (4) Changes in carbon sinks were mainly affected by natural factors and land urbanization. Changes in carbon emissions were mainly affected by population urbanization, economic urbanization, and land urbanization. (5) To achieve “economical and intensive use of land”, “urban growth boundary” and “ecological red lines” should be determined for government policies on land use management. These factors have great significance for “increasing carbon sinks and reducing carbon emissions” in urban ecological systems.     

Invasion status of Asiatic red-bellied squirrels in Argentina

The only known introduction of a squirrel species into South America is the case of the Asiatic red-bellied tree squirrel Callosciurus erythraeus that was introduced in the Pampas Region of Argentina in 1970. To inform management programmes, we analysed the current distribution, expansion rate, and abundance of the red-bellied squirrel in Argentina, and identified invasion pathways. Apart from the first and main focus of invasion, three other invasion foci have originated as a consequence of intentional releases between 1995 and 2000. The main invasion focus already extends over >1300 km², where estimated density averaged 15 ind ha^?1 and numbers of squirrels may reach 100,000 individuals. The area invaded in the other three invasion foci varied between <1 and 34 km² and mean densities were around 3–5 ind ha^?1. Squirrel abundance and residents’ attitude towards this introduced species in the main invasion focus make eradication unfeasible, though management actions such as control, containment and mitigation of damages should be undertaken. Eradication of the relatively small invasion foci must be immediately evaluated, with priority given to valuable conservation areas under high invasion risk.     

Does the tropical agricultural matrix bear potential for primate conservation? A baseline study from Western Uganda

As for most large mammals, conservation research on primates usually focuses on protected areas, and yet not much is known about primate communities in land-use systems in the absence of hunting. Using line transects, we estimated population densities for four primate species in a mixed agroforest landscape up to a distance of 4000 m from a forest reserve, in a region where no primate hunting takes place. We then modelled encounter rates and cluster size in relation to landscape parameters by means of bivariate analysis and Generalised Linear Models (GLMs). Black-and-white colobus (Colobus guereza) were most common, with confidence intervals for density estimates of 31.1–62.8 individuals/km². Red-tailed monkeys (Cercopithecus ascanius) and blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis) occurred at 15.2–37.9 ind/km² and 13.9–36.7 ind/km² respectively, and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) at 1.0–2.8 ind/km². Chimpanzee nest numbers and distribution appeared to be significantly constrained by transect forest coverage, forest coverage within 500 m and distance from the main forest, whereas monkey sightings were generally less restricted by landscape variables. The considerable population density of monkeys suggests that, in the absence of hunting, mixed agroforest systems may play a relevant role in primate conservation and highlight that it is useful to consider primate ecology in land sharing approaches to conservation.     

Temperature and rate of seed consumption by ground beetles (Carabidae)

Predation is a key source of seed mortality in many weed species and thus is a part of natural control. In the field, the intensity of seed predation by invertebrates varies during the course of a year. One source of this variation is fluctuations in ambient temperature. Here, the effect of temperature on seed consumption is investigated for the first time, using two abundant carabid seed predators, Pseudoophonus rufipes and Harpalus affinis (Coleoptera: Carabidae), and dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) as a model system. Field collected individuals were sexed, kept at one of six constant temperatures between 10 and 28 °C and provided with a surplus of seed. Seed consumption was recorded over a period of 4 days. Averaged over all the temperatures, the smaller H. affinis consumed 12.2 seeds day^?1 and larger P. rufipes 29 seeds day^?1. On average, females consumed more seeds than males. Seed consumption by both species increased with temperature. In H. affinis the increase was linear and different for males and females. In P. rufipes the consumption was similar in both sexes but curvilinear because there was no further increase in consumption above 20 °C. Assuming a linear relationship between temperature and consumption at up to 20 °C we calculated the temperature at which seed consumption ceased (?0.1 to 0.3 °C in H. affinis and 6.3–6.9 °C in P. rufipes) and the increment in seed consumption per 1 °C increase in temperature above this threshold (0.4–1.0 and 1.5–4.2 seeds individual^?1 day^?1, respectively) for the two species. Thus, it is possible to calculate the average daily consumption of each species over a range of temperatures up to 20 °C.     

Establishment and dispersal of the fire ant decapitating fly Pseudacteon tricuspis in North Florida

The decapitating fly Pseudacteon tricuspis Borgmeier was released at eight sites in North Florida between the summer of 1997 and the fall of 1999 as a self-sustaining biocontrol agent of the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren. Several releases used parasitized fire ant workers while most involved adult flies released over disturbed ant mounds. Establishment and dispersal of fly populations were monitored by disturbing about 10 fire ant mounds at each site and then inspecting them closely for hovering flies over a period of about 30 min. Overwintering populations of flies were successfully established at 6 of 8 release sites. Over several years, fly populations at these sites increased to levels as high or higher than those normally seen in their South American homeland. By the fall of 1999, flies had expanded out 1–6 km from five release sites and occupied about 125 km². By the fall of 2000 the five initial release sites plus one new site had fused into one large area about 70 km in diameter. The flies had expanded out an additional 16–29 km and occupied about 3300 km². By the fall of 2001 the flies had expanded out an additional 10–30 km and occupied approximately 8100 km². Fly dispersal was not related to wind patterns in the Gainesville area. Based on the above rates of dispersal and an establishment rate of 66%, we estimate that a state the size of Florida would require 5–10 releases spaced over a 3-year period to cover the state in 6–9 years.     

Population densities,group size and biomass of ungulates in a lowland tropical rainforest forest of the eastern Himalayas

Large ungulate population monitoring is a crucial wildlife management tool as ungulates help in structuring and maintaining the large carnivore populations. Reliable data on population status of major ungulate prey species are still non-existent for most of the protected areas in the Indian part of the eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. Twenty transects were monitored over a period of three years (2009–2011) totaling 600 km with an average length of 2 km. The estimated mean density of ungulates was 17.5 km⁻² with overall density of 48.7 km⁻². The wild pig Sus scrofa had the highest density (6.7 ± 1.2 km⁻²) among all the prey species followed by barking deer Muntiacus muntjak (3.9 ± 0.6 km⁻²), sambar Rusa unicolor (3.8 ± 0.5) and gaur Bos gaurus (3.5 ± 0.9 km⁻²). The estimated total ungulate biomass density was 2182.56 kg km⁻². This prey biomass can support up to 7.2 tigers per 100 km⁻². However, with two other sympatric carnivores sharing the same resources, the actual tiger numbers that can be supported will be lower. The estimated minor prey species was 31 km⁻² significantly 30.6% crop damages were reported by wild pig (p = 0.01) and 35.4% was elephant (p = 0.004). This data on ungulate densities and biomass will be crucial for carnivore conservation in this understudied globally significant biodiversity hotspot.     

Decouple indicators on the CO2 emission-economic growth linkage: The Jiangsu Province case

Jiangsu Province has become one of the most developed regions in China. Economic growth in Jiangsu has occurred along with rising energy-related CO₂ emission levels. Thus, the link between economic activity and environmental pressure represents a risk to the global efforts toward CO₂ emission reductions. This paper examines the occurrence of a decoupling between the growth rates in economic activity and CO₂ emission from energy consumption in Jiangsu from 1995 to 2009. The results indicate that: (1) Along with the rapid economic development, CO₂ emission in Jiangsu rose from 18,781.46 × 10⁴ t in 1995 to 52,029.24 × 10⁴ t in 2009, with an average annual growth rate of 7.54%. Our results also show that CO₂ emission in Jiangsu Province is dominated by the secondary, which accounts for about 80% of total CO₂ emission. (2) During the study period, the whole Jiangsu economy experienced weak decoupling and strong decoupling except 2003–2005. However the decoupling states for the secondary and tertiary industries are similar to that of the whole economy.     

粤港澳大湾区生态系统格局变化与模拟

快速城市化是导致粤港澳大湾区生态系统时空格局变化的主要驱动力之一,模拟生态系统变化趋势对于优化区域土地利用格局、防控城市化的生态风险具有重要意义。以2000、2005、2010、2015、2018年5期土地利用数据,分析该区域生态系统格局演变,并运用CA-Markov模型模拟2025年的生态系统格局。研究结果表明:(1)2018年大湾区的森林、农田和城镇为主要生态系统类型,分别占区域总面积的53.99%、22.67%和14.51%。(2)2000—2018年农田、森林、湿地面积分别下降了1983、740、278 km~2,城镇和草地面积分别上升了2896、103 km~2,城镇面积增长的主要途径是对周围农田、林地和湿地的侵占,草地面积增长是因为管理经营不善导致部分林地退化为草地。(3)大湾区的景观多样性和均匀度下降,景观正在向小斑块趋势发展,空间连通性下降,破碎度增加。(4)模拟2025年的生态系统格局发现,与2018年相比,城镇面积增长了609 km~2,农田和森林分别减少了309 km~2和316 km~2。基于大湾区生态系统格局变化与模拟发现,快速城市化区域中,落实耕地保护红线和生态保护红线制度、保护重要生态空间完整性,对于降低城市化的生态风险具有重要作用。     

Long-term trend of Ulva prolifera blooms in the western Yellow Sea

Blooms of the green macroalga Ulva prolifera in the western Yellow Sea occurred every year since 2008, and they have been reported and studied extensively using a variety of means including remote sensing. However, to date, long-term bloom patterns have not been reported except for a few case studies showing examples in different years. Here, using MODIS observations and an objective method to perform statistical analysis, mean Ulva coverage in the western Yellow Sea has been derived and analyzed between 2007 and 2015 at both monthly and annual scales. On annual scale, mean Ulva coverage decreased after 2008, but increased rapidly after 2012 from 8 km² in 2012 to 116 km² in 2015 (the largest ever reported in history for this region). In the month of June the mean coverage increased from 18 km² in 2012 to 363 km² in 2015. Other than 2009 and 2010, the month of June showed maximum Ulva coverage in every year. These coverage estimates are significantly lower than previously reported values as they represent “pure” algae coverage after taking into account of partial pixel coverage. Several environmental factors were examined in an attempt to determine the reasons behind such long-term changes, yet the results are inconclusive, suggesting a strong necessity of further coordinated and multi-disciplinary researches.     

Species distribution models as a tool to predict range expansion after reintroduction: A case study on Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber)

Species Distribution Models (SDMs) may provide important information for the follow-up phase of reintroduction operations by identifying the main areas most likely to be colonized by the reintroduced species. We used SDMs to identify the potential distribution of Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber) reintroduced to Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2004–2006 after being historically driven to extinction by overhunting. Models were also used to carry out a gap analysis to assess the degree of protection granted by the national reserve networks to the potentially expanding population. Distances from hydrographic network, broadleaved forest, main watercourses and farmland were the main factors influencing model performance. We estimated that suitable habitat covers 14.0% (31,000 km²) of the whole study area. In Serbia, in 2004–2013 beavers expanded their range at a mean colonization speed of 70.9 ± 12.8 km/year (mean ± SD). Only 2.89% of and 9.72% of beaver’s suitable habitat lie within the national network of protected areas of Bosnia and Serbia respectively. We detected new potential areas where beavers will likely settle in the near future, advising on where further monitoring should be carried out. We also identified low suitability areas to be targeted with appropriate management to improve their conditions as well as important regions falling outside reserve boundaries to which protection should be granted.     

Determinants of smooth-coated otter occupancy in a rapidly urbanizing coastal landscape in Southeast Asia

Urbanization often has negative impacts on wildlife, nevertheless many species can persist in heavily modified habitats. Understanding factors that promote species persistence in urbanizing landscapes is therefore important for maintaining biodiversity in changing landscapes and may inform more biodiversity-friendly development. We investigated effects of landscape-scale variables on habitat occupancy of Smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) in the Inner Gulf of Thailand. In this internationally important wetland complex, 86% of natural habitats have been altered and are now highly urbanized. We conducted track and sign surveys in 60, 25 km² grid cells encompassing 1,474 km². Within each cell, we quantified the landscape cover types including urban areas, natural habitat (predominately thin ribbons of mangrove along waterways), agriculture, aquaculture, and potential prey availability using a GIS and field surveys. We used occupancy models to identify habitat variables that affected probability of detection and occupancy. Estimated otter occupancy, based on the top model, was 0.33 ± 0.07 (95% CI 0.18–0.48) and detection probability was 0.50 ± 0.05 (95% CI 0.41–0.60). Otter occupancy was positively associated with the proportion of natural habitat and the cover of traditional aquaculture ponds, but negatively associated with agriculture and urban cover. The remaining natural patches appear to act as critical refuges for otter, allowing them to persist in an otherwise heavily transformed landscape. Because aquaculture ponds are likely important prey sources for otters, it may lead to conflict with aquaculture farmers. Further studies of feeding and movement patterns in cooperation with aquaculture farmers would be beneficial for developing detailed management plans for the species in this human dominated landscape.     

Responses of wolf feeding habits after adverse climatic events in central-western Belarus

Many studies have investigated the ecology of wolf populations of Eurasia, showing that although wolves are mostly opportunistic in seeking meso-large enough mammalian prey, they can also be selective, depending on local availability of prey and their population biomass. Yet prey preferences of the wolf have been poorly evaluated in situations of complex predator/prey systems because such ecological situations are extremely rare in Europe. In particular, the role of beaver is poorly known due to the extreme decline in its range and population over the last few centuries.We conducted a 15-year study (1999–2014) of wolf Canis lupus diet in the Naliboki forest of central-western Belarus to determine the dietary responses of the wolf population in a context of a rich prey supply (beaver 650 inds/100 km², elk 47 inds/100 km², red deer 98 inds/100 km, roe deer 398 inds/100 km², wild boar 234 inds/100 km²). The bison, although present, is not preyed on. We compared the seasonal and annual diet variations of both wolf adults and pups, by scat analysis and hair identification. In winter 2012–2013, the winter was quite harsh with a long period of snow, which severely affected the roe deer and wild boar populations. Five severe summer droughts also occurred (1999, 2001, 2002, 2004 and 2013), greatly decreasing the water level in rivers and canals. We took advantage of these stressful events to evaluate the diet responses of the wolves.In “normal” years, we identified 11 food categories, essentially beaver and medium-sized ungulates (66%), and large ungulates to a lesser extent (9% in summer, 20% in winter). The adults were found to selectively supply pups with beaver, probably because of its easy transportability. Beaver consumption also increased during summer droughts when water levels were very low. After the harsh winter of 2012–2013, which was followed by a sharp decline in medium-sized prey, we observed a shift in the winter diet breadth of the wolves towards greater consumption of both large wild ungulates and small carnivores. We concluded that:1. Beaver is a functional element in wolf ecology, as a primary food for adults and pups;2. A large range of available prey species is important to maintaining a viable wolf population in cases of extreme climatic events.     

Spatial requirements of jaguars and pumas in Southern Mexico

Understanding how large felids use space is essential for the design of conservation plans that are required for their survival. Jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) are the largest felids in the Neotropics, and they are sympatric throughout the entire range of the jaguar. However, there is very little information about the spatial requirements of these two species in the tropical rainforests of Central America. Using satellite GPS collars, we compared the spatial ecology of jaguars and pumas in a tropical rainforest in southern Mexico. We found that jaguars had home ranges that were 2–6 times larger than those of pumas. The mean annual home range was 181.4 ± 4.0 km² for female jaguars and 431.6 ± 152.6 km² for males. Annual home range for the only female puma tracked was 34.3 km², and 72.0 ± 85.2 km² for males. Jaguars and pumas with overlapping home ranges showed little overlap of core areas and avoided using the same sites at the same time, which suggested that territoriality and avoidance were in play. Further evidence of avoidance was derived from our observation that pumas exhibited greater movement during the lightest periods of the day and jaguars moved most during the darkest. This temporal separation probably facilitates coexistence. Our data suggest that habitat destruction and fragmentation has more severe effects on jaguars than on pumas. According to our estimates, patches of at least 180 km² of primary forest are required to meet the annual spatial requirements of female jaguars. Thus, to conserve jaguars in this region, large tracts of primary forest should be preserved. Importantly, this population of jaguars depends on the adequate preservation of connectivity between natural reserves in Mexico and Guatemala.     

Potential for integrated control of Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) using larvicides and guppies

Acute toxicity tests were carried out to determine the effect of three larvicides, spinosad, pirimiphos methyl, and chlorpyrifos, on Culex quinquefasciatus Say, Anopheles gambiae s.s. Giles (Diptera: Culicidae), and guppies, Poecilia reticulata Peters (Pisces: Poeciliidae). Thereafter, larvae of Cx. quinquefasciatus were introduced to P. reticulata in containers of different volumes with low concentrations of each larvicide at established predator to prey densities of 1–35; 5–70 and 10–350 (fish to larvae) respectively. The experiment was replicated six times, and the larval consumption was counted after 24 h. Spinosad and pirimiphos methyl were significantly toxic to Cx. quinquefasciatus, the less susceptible mosquito species. Guppy consumption of Culex larvae was highest at a predator to prey density 5–70. Feeding activity of guppies increased in the spinosad treatment at 49 μg L⁻¹ compared to control and the synthetic larvicides. The synthetic larvicides generally reduced consumption of larvae except for the lowest concentration of pirimiphos methyl which increased it at the highest predator to prey density in a 3 L container. The highest percentage of Culex larvae was consumed by fish in the presence of spinosad at 49 μg L⁻¹ and a predator to prey density of 5–70 in 0.5 L plastic containers. Thus, predator to prey density, container size, type and concentration of larvicide are all important factors to be considered in integrated management of mosquito larvae.     

Assessing forest fragmentation in northeastern region (NER) of India using landscape matrices

Northeastern region (NER) of India, one of the largest reserves of forests in India has so far been studied with a view to map the distribution of species or modeling the disturbance regimes and richness analysis. The present study focuses on the importance of regional level studies where the entire NER which is under the threat of forest fragmentation and degradation, is been assessed. In the present study, six historical data sets generated from remote sensing data (1972, 1982, 1987, 1989, 1993 and 1999) are used to assess forest cover loss, shape index and entropy to the degree of forest fragmentation over a multi-decadal period. The assessments have been carried out in the open (40–10% canopy density) and close (>40% canopy density) forest cover classes. The range of shape index and deviation from the actual mean in open forest and closed forest were computed separately. The patches among two categories were further analyzed based on patch area into six classes; ranging from <1 km² to >500 km². This also indicates variability of the forest patches. It is noteworthy that patches of area within 1–10 km² and 10–50 km² have been severely fragmented. This loss could be attributed to the shifting cultivation practice where the patches of moderate size are cultivated by group of families. The present study could give an insight to the patch configuration and composition in terms of shape index and the Shannon's entropy index.     

10-Year risk of colorectal cancer: Development and validation of a prediction model in middle-aged Japanese men

Background: To estimate an individual's probability of developing colorectal cancer (CRC) may aid health professionals and individuals in improving lifestyle behaviors or deciding the screening regimens. As fewer studies on cancer risk prediction were seen so far, we initially developed an assessment tool with synthesizing key information from a variety of CRC risk factors through a large population-based cohort study. Method: The prediction model was derived from 28,115 men in the Japan Public Health Center-based (JPHC) Prospective Study Cohort II (follow-up: 1993–2005), with risk factors selected by Cox proportion hazard regression. 18,256 men in the JPHC Study Cohort I (follow-up: 1995–2005) were used to evaluate the model's performance. Results: 543 and 398 CRCs were diagnosed during the follow-up period in Cohorts II and I, respectively. The prediction model, including age, BMI, alcohol consumption, smoking status, and the daily physical activity level, showed modest discrimination ability for CRC (C = 0.70; 95% confidential interval, 0.68–0.72) in Cohort II and well calibrated in Cohort I (Hosmer–Lemeshow χ² = 14.2, P = 0.08). Conclusion: The 10-year CRC risk prediction model may be used to estimate CRC risk in Japanese men. It may also play a role in the promotion of CRC prevention strategies.     

Dendrochronological research of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) radial growth in vicinity of industrial pollution

The aim of this research is to investigate changes in the annual radial increment of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in the vicinity of intensive (3–10 km) and moderate (11–20 km) industrial pollution during different growth periods (growth promotion, inhibition, and recovery). Low level of emission was beneficial for tree growth during the growth promotion period, and the annual radial increment in the zones of intensive and moderate pollution increased by approximately 15–25% and 10%, respectively. Severe loss was reported to forests during the growth inhibition period when nitrogen and sulphur dioxide emissions were 37–40 thousand (thou.) tons per year. About 40–45% tree radial increment loss was observed in the stands closest to the pollution source, and 15–20% loss was observed for the most distant stands. The stabilization of radial growth decrease and the beginning of recovery of damaged stands began in 1988–1992, when the annual amount of industrial emissions and environmental pollution were considerably reduced. The stabilization of radial growth and the initiation of recovery after pollution reduction were high for the most damaged stands. Their radial increment was stable and close to that of the control stands in 2000–2011. Stands with less damage growing further from the pollution source were recovered earlier, and their radial increment stabilized near the control increment in 1995–1999. The results of linear regression analysis demonstrated that the impact of pollution is different for stands growing at different distances from the plant, and the impact decreases with distance (R² = 0.78 and R² = 0.75, respectively; p < 0.05).     

Scales characterising a high density thin layer of Dinophysis acuta Ehrenberg and its transport within a coastal jet

An investigation into the distribution of Dinophysis spp. in coastal waters off the south coast of Ireland was carried out in July 2007. Dinophysis acuta was present as a sub surface layer containing up to 55,000 cells L⁻¹. The population had a high percentage of viable cells (mean: 89%; median: 94%; n = 24) with a high specific division rate (∼0.55 d⁻¹). The layer, of approximately 5 m thickness, did not coincide with the fluorescence maximum and was present as a patch of horizontal dimension less than 10 km × 7 km. Both conventional and towed undulating CTD used in conjunction with high vertical resolution sampling methods showed the patch of Dinophysis to move with a similar speed and direction as the coastal flow, which ran parallel to the coast in the form of a coastal jet with speed of the order of 6.5–7 km day⁻¹. The implications of the alongshore transport of populations of harmful species in coastal jets for monitoring programmes and predictive models are discussed.     

Stature,body mass,and brain size: A two-million-year odyssey

Physical size has been critical in the evolutionary success of the genus Homo over the past 2.4 million-years. An acceleration in the expansion of savannah grasslands in Africa from 1.6 Ma to 1.2 Ma witnessed concomitant increases in physical stature (150–170 cm), weight (50–70 kg), and brain size (750–900 cm³). With the onset of 100,000 year Middle Pleistocene glacial cycles (“ice ages”) some 780,000 years ago, large-bodied Homo groups had reached modern size and had successfully dispersed from equatorial Africa, Central, and Southeast Asia to high-latitude localities in Atlantic Europe and North East Asia. While there is support for incursions of multiple Homo lineages to West Asia and Continental Europe at this time, data does not favour a persistence of Homo erectus beyond ～400,000 years ago in Africa, west and Central Asia, and Europe. Novel Middle Pleistocene Homo forms (780,000–400,000 years) may not have been substantially taller (150–170 cm) than earlier Homo (1.6 Ma–800,000 years), yet brain size exceeded 1000 cm³ and body mass approached 80 kg in some males. Later Pleistocene Homo (400,000–138,000 years) were ‘massive’ in their height (160–190 cm) and mass (70–90 kg) and consistently exceed recent humans. Relative brain size exceeds earlier Homo, yet is substantially lower than in final glacial H. sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis. A final leap in absolute and relative brain size in Homo (300,000–138,000 years) occurred independent of any observed increase in body mass and implies a different selective mediator to that operating on brain size increases observed in earlier Homo.