Human impact on mid- and late Holocene vegetation in south Cumbria, UK

The use of 9 pollen sampling sites and 56 14C dates has identified hitherto unsuspected or poorly-defined sequences of mid- to late Holocene (late Neolithic to post-Medieval) anthropogenic vegetation changes in south Cumbria, U.K. A series of small-scale, but significant woodland clearance episodes are recorded throughout the Bronze Age, followed by a marked recession in activity during the early Iron Age. The late Iron Age-Roman periods witnessed the first major clearance of woodland in the region which was succeeded by woodland regeneration in the post-Roman/early Medieval period. Woodland clearance intensified in the later Medieval period culminating in large areas of permanently open landscape. The results show that high-resolution, independently date pollen analysis is necessary to reveal regional evidence of small, temporary Bronze Age clearances. A well-documented prehistoric wooden trackway from Foulshaw Moss is shown to be significantly older than previously thought, dating to the mid-Bronze Age, ca. 1550–1250 cal B.C. Pre-Roman cereal cultivation in the area is also confirmed.The Department of Earth Sciences     

线粒体全基因组揭示嫩江流域史前人群遗传结构的动态变化

嫩江流域是中国东北地区古代先民的重要栖息地之一。自新石器时代开始这里的先民一直以渔猎经济为主要生活方式,直到新石器时代晚期至早期青铜时代才开始兼营畜牧业和少量的种植业。嫩江流域青铜时代的生业模式的转变是否伴随着外来人群的融合与替代一直是考古研究的热点。为了探讨嫩江流域新石器时代与青铜铁器时代人群的构成是否改变,我们对嫩江流域新石器时代至青铜铁器时代的24个个体进行了线粒体全基因组分析。分析结果表明：嫩江流域青铜铁器时代人群与新石器时代人群具有一定遗传连续性的同时,晚期人群与西辽河地区古代人群有着更近的遗传联系,表明西辽河地区古代居民对嫩江流域青铜铁器时代人群具有部分遗传贡献。结合考古学文化、古气候学数据以及语言学证据,我们推测距今4000-3000年间,西辽河地区古代居民曾迁入到嫩江流域,并留下遗传印记。     

History of sedentary farming in Ångermanland, northern Sweden, during the Iron Age and Medieval period based on pollen analytical investigations

Compared with most parts of Europe, northern Sweden is essentially a sparsely populated wilderness. There is, however, an ever increasing body of archaeological and palaeoecological information that shows that the region has a long cultural history. In this paper, results of pollen analytical investigations from four lakes with varved lake sediments, in the province of Ångermanland, are presented. These investigations have yielded evidence of continuous and sedentary agriculture from the 6th century in the region close to the Bothnian coast and near the mouth of the large river Ångermanälven. This early agriculture appears to have been based on animal husbandry and cereal, mainly barley, cultivation. During a second farming expansion phase at ca. A.D. 1200, rye cultivation became more important. The increased farming activity during this period was most pronounced at the coast and in the river valley, but more peripheral regions away from the river valley were also exploited. During the period A.D. 1600–1800, arable farming assumed greater importance. In the first decades of the 20th century, the area under cultivation declined, cereal cultivation mostly ceased and the fields were used for pasture.     

Plant Resources from the Bronze Age and the first Iron Age in the northwestern arc of the Mediterranean Basin

This paper updates the question of plant resources during the Bronze Age and First Iron Age in the northwestern Mediterranean Basin. Among the cereals, six-row hulled barley is dominant throughout the territory, whereas naked and hulled wheats take on greater or lesser roles from region to region. Millet cultivation developed during the Bronze Age and became widespread in the First Iron Age. Apart from cereals, pulses, oil species and fruit appear to be secondary. Results from the study of archaeobotanical remains on wetland sites, however, lead us to question this finding, as oil plants and fruits are much better represented in waterlogged conditions. The cultivation of vine began in the First Iron Age. In spite of a number of characteristics common to plants throughout the study area, regional differences, evident in the Bronze Age, seem to dissipate in the First Iron Age.     

Long-term history of land-use and vegetation at Femtingagölen — a small lake in the Småland Uplands, southern Sweden

Pollen analysis was carried out on gyttja from the small lake Femtingagölen in the Småland Uplands, southern Sweden. The interpretation of the pollen diagram focused on land-use history and comparisons were made to archaeological and historical information from the area. An absolute chronology, based on AMS dates from terrestrial plant macrofossils, was complemented by inferred dates. The pollen analytical data suggest interference with the woodland cover from ca. 1700 B.C. onwards. Intensified grazing and forest clearances resulted in semi-open pastures between ca. A.D. 400–600 which was followed by forest regeneration (chronology based on AMS ¹⁴C dates and cross-correlation with other well dated profiles). The landscape became more open again between A.D. 800 and 1400. Animal husbandry was complemented by small-scale shifting cultivation during the Iron Age. Permanent arable fields were probably not introduced until the Late Iron Age or the Middle Ages. Hordeum and Triticum were grown during the Iron Age, Hordeum, Triticum, Secale and Cannabis sativa during the Middle Ages and early Modern time, and Hordeum and Avena in the recent past. Sandy and silty soils, where stone clearance was not necessary, have probably been used for cereal growing in prehistoric and historic time.     

Stone Age to recent land-use history at Pegrema, northern Lake Onega, Russian Karelia

The village of Pegrema in Karelia may be regarded as a Stone Age innovation centre in the large Lake Onega area. Two pollen and plant macrofossil diagrams are presented which represent the first contribution to the study of human impact in the area using anthropogenic pollen indicators. A continuous but sporadic human presence from the Mesolithic onwards is demonstrated. While there is no archaeological evidence relating to the period 4200–3000 B.P., the pollen data suggest continuous, though rather sparse human presence. The data do not support any natural catastrophes in Pegrema as has been suggested elsewhere. Cerealia pollen is recorded earlier than expected (c. 5000 B.P.=. In the Bronce Age and Iron Age, the settlement of the Zaonezhye peninsula is reflected by a slight increase in herb pollen representation, sporadic Cerealia pollen and several periods of regression in Picea. The long introductory period of agriculture to the area, as well as the similarities and discrepancies between different sources of evidence (palaeoecological, archaeological and historical) are discussed at some length. The start of land clearance for permanent cultivation in the profile Pegrema S was dated to the late 13^th century. The beginning of more intensive field cultivation in the 15^th century is clearly seen in the pollen succession at both localities. The fluctuation in anthropogenic indicators can be related to population density based on historical data. The village of Pegrema was depopulated in 1956 which is reflected in a distinct decline in settlement indicators. Received February 17 / Accepted May 19, 2000     

Holocene vegetation and land-use history in the environs of Lake Kahala, northern Estonia

Pollen profiles, based cores taken in Lake Kahala and from the adjoining mire, were used to establish general vegetation history and to reconstruct the extent and types of land-use over most of the Holocene. Modern pollen deposition was studied using moss polsters and the results were used in the interpretation of the fossil pollen data in terms of former land-use practices. The modern-day samples are from settlements, hay meadow and pasture, and overgrown pasture. Indications of human activity can be traced back to the Stone Age. At ca. 6400 cal. B.C., the first indications of possible woodland utilisation by humans are recorded. This may have involved grazing within the forests. From 4200 cal. B.C. onwards, animal husbandry with changing intensity was practised. Arable farming, involving cereals, was introduced to the area at ca. 1800 cal. B.C., but it was only at ca. 500 cal. B.C. that it assumed an important role in the farming economy.Secale cereale (rye) was introduced during the Roman Iron Age, intensive rye cultivation started at the end of the Iron Age, at ca. cal. A.D. 800. Ever increasing farming pressures triggered the formation of openalvars. Open landscape similar to that of today has persisted, with minor forest regeneration phases, since at least 500 cal. B.C.     

The Palaeoenvironmental Impact of Prehistoric Settlement and Proto-Historic Urbanism: Tracing the Emergence of the Oppidum of Corent,Auvergne, France

Early human societies and their interactions with the natural world have been extensively explored in palaeoenvironmental studies across Central and Western Europe. Yet, despite an extensive body of scholarship, there is little consideration of the environmental impacts of proto-historic urbanisation. Typically palaeoenvironmental studies of Bronze and Iron Age societies discuss human impact in terms of woodland clearance, landscape openness and evidence for agriculture. Although these features are clearly key indicators of human settlement, and characterise Neolithic and early to Middle Bronze Age impacts at Corent, they do not appear to represent defining features of a protohistoric urban environment. The Late Iron Age Gallic Oppidum of Corent is remarkable for the paucity of evidence for agriculture and strong representation of apophytes associated with disturbance. Increased floristic diversity – a phenomenon also observed in more recent urban environments – was also noted. The same, although somewhat more pronounced, patterns are noted for the Late Bronze Age and hint at the possibility of a nascent urban area. High percentages of pollen from non-native trees such as Platanus, Castanea and Juglans in the late Bronze Age and Gallic period also suggest trade and cultural exchange, notably with the Mediterranean world. Indeed, these findings question the validity of applying Castanea and Juglans as absolute chronological markers of Romanisation. These results clearly indicate the value of local-scale palaeoecological studies and their potential for tracing the phases in the emergence of a proto-historic urban environment.     

Genetic Continuity of Bronze Age Ancestry with Increased Steppe-Related Ancestry in Late Iron Age Uzbekistan

Although Uzbekistan and Central Asia are known for the well-studied Bronze Age civilization of the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), the lesser-known Iron Age was also a dynamic period that resulted in increased interaction and admixture among different cultures from this region. To broaden our understanding of events that impacted the demography and population structure of this region, we generated 27 genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphism capture data sets of Late Iron Age individuals around the Historical Kushan time period (∼2100–1500 BP) from three sites in South Uzbekistan. Overall, Bronze Age ancestry persists into the Iron Age in Uzbekistan, with no major replacements of populations with Steppe-related ancestry. However, these individuals suggest diverse ancestries related to Iranian farmers, Anatolian farmers, and Steppe herders, with a small amount of West European Hunter Gatherer, East Asian, and South Asian Hunter Gatherer ancestry as well. Genetic affinity toward the Late Bronze Age Steppe herders and a higher Steppe-related ancestry than that found in BMAC populations suggest an increased mobility and interaction of individuals from the Northern Steppe in a Southward direction. In addition, a decrease of Iranian and an increase of Anatolian farmer-like ancestry in Uzbekistan Iron Age individuals were observed compared with the BMAC populations from Uzbekistan. Thus, despite continuity from the Bronze Age, increased admixture played a major role in the shift from the Bronze to the Iron Age in southern Uzbekistan. This mixed ancestry is also observed in other parts of the Steppe and Central Asia, suggesting more widespread admixture among local populations.     

Logné, a peat bog of European ecological interest in the Massif Armorican, Western France: Bog development, vegetation and land-use history

Logné, one of three raised bogs (Hochmoor) in the Massif Armorican, was officially designated as a nature reserve in 1987 and is of considerable ecological interest from botanical, ornithological and herpetological aspects. Palynological investigations reveal the history of local and regional vegetation during the last ca. 4000 years. From the end of the Neolithic Age to the present day, changes in the bog appear to have been considerably influenced by variations in local watertable level that may be of natural origin or caused by human activity. Alder carr withOsmunda regalis, which was the dominant vegetation around the periphery of the bog at ca. 4200 B.P., underwent many changes. Its final demise occurred in Gallo-Roman times when the local landscape took on a distinctly open appearance. The first clear evidence for cereal cultivation relates to the Bronze Age. After a decline in farming at the beginning of the Iron Age, there was a strong renewal of farming in the La Tène period, which included a distinct arable component and also records forJuglans andCastanea pollen. The timing of the introduction of walnut and chestnut to the Massif Armorican is discussed.     

Phosphorus inputs to Lake Naivasha,Kenya, from its catchment and the trophic state of the lake

The main river supplying Lake Naivasha, Kenya, the Malewa, drains a catchment given over to largely subsistence cultivation and animal husbandry. The lake itself is the focus for an intensive horticultural industry based upon irrigation from the lake. The Malewa, however, is relatively independent of the impact of industry, and so its contribution to eutrophication of the lake was evaluated. Two periods of study, a very wet-dry and a `normal' wet-dry season showed that the river contribution of phosphorus led to a total phosphorus loading of 1.4 g m<sup>–2</sup> lake surface ann<sup>–1</sup> in the very wet period compared to 0.2 in the `normal'. Chlorophyll `a' in the open water of the lake was significantly related to soluble reactive phosphorus. The lake is now eutrophic by normal limnological criteria.     

Four thousand years of plant exploitation in the Chad Basin of northeast Nigeria I: The archaeobotany of Kursakata

This paper discusses archaeobotanical remains from the settlement mound of Kursakata, Nigeria, comprising both charred and uncharred seeds and fruits as well as charcoal. In addition, impressions of plant tempering material in potsherds were analysed. The late Stone Age and Iron Age sequence at Kursakata is date from 1000 cal. B.C. to cal. A.D. 100. DomesticatedPennisetum (pearl millet), wild Paniceae and wild rice are the most common taxa. Kernels from tree fruits were regularly found including large numbers ofVitex simplicifolia—a tree which is absent from the area today. A distinct change in plant spectra can be observed between the late Stone Age and the Iron Age. Although domesticated pearl millet was already known at the beginning of the settlement sequence of Kursakata, it only gained greater economic importance during the Iron Age. Besides farming, pastoralism and fishing, gathering of wild plants always played a major role in the subsistence strategy of the inhabitants of Kursakata. The charcoal results show that firewood was mainly collected from woodlands on the clay plains, which must have been more diverse than today. The end of the late Stone Age in the Chad Basin was presumably accompanied by the onset of drier environmental conditions from ca. 800 cal. B.C. onwards.     

Agricultural practices in Arctic Norway during the first millennium b.c.

Palaeoecological investigations of mires suggest that agriculture was established north of the Arctic Circle in Norway during the late Bronze Age (1100?C500 b.c.) and Pre-Roman Iron Age (500?C1 b.c.). The lack of archaeobotanical and archaeological investigations has made it difficult to assess the nature of this early agricultural expansion into the Arctic in any detail. Here we present the first well documented archaeobotanical investigation from north Norway that covers this agricultural pioneer phase. Remains of charred seeds show that barley (Hordeum) was already being cultivated in the late Bronze Age, and that wheat (Triticum) was introduced in the Pre-Roman Iron Age. Large amounts of crowberry (Empetrum) seeds are also typical of the Pre-Roman Iron Age and were obviously an important food plant at the time, at least locally. Charcoal rich layers dated to the late Bronze Age suggest that the local birch forest was initially cleared away with the help of fire, possibly related to a slash-and-burn cultivation practice. Lithostratigraphic and pollen-analytical results indicate that the cultivation practice of the Pre-Roman Iron Age was a form of bush-fallow system with intensive soil re-working alternated with long periods of fallow.     

Dendrochronological analyses of wood samples from a Late Bronze to early Iron Age site at Lake Luokesa,Lithuania

Tree rings of 184 archaeological wood samples from two Late Bronze to early Iron Age lake sites at Lake Luokesa (Luokesai e?eras), Lithuania, Moletai district, were analyzed. Despite severe difficulties with synchronization, Pinus (pine), Quercus (oak) and Alnus (alder) yielded some cross-datable series. The general picture is that the settlers chose small trees as timber, which they used in their natural round shape. The trees did not grow in homogeneous even-aged stands, but show very different ages and growth levels. Despite the generally low numbers of tree rings in the individual samples, the strong archaeological framework allowed cross-dating of some series and the building of chronologies for single structures. Based on these attempts, a 90 year long first floating chronology of the settlement structures is presented. Luokesa Site 2 (L2) was mainly built within the relative year 53. Luokesa Site 1 (L1) was certainly in use from the relative year 74 onwards. All fences at L1 show their main building activity in the relative year 81, four years after the main building activities in the village itself. It can be concluded that the settlement L1 was in use for at least 16 years. Because of the lack of a standard dendrochronological curve for the Baltic region, wiggle-matching was applied to obtain an absolute date for both settlements. The data clearly show that all samples relate to the Late Bronze–early Iron Age. The period where all wiggle matching results overlap is the period between 625 and 535 bc (the 2σ ranges are given). Based on the dating, duration and timber characteristics of the occupation, comparisons with Polish early Iron Age sites are made, which indicate a close resemblance in terms of wood use and settlement concept.     

Palaeoecological evidence for Holocene vegetation, climate and land-use change in the low Don basin and Kalmuk area, southern Russia

Two¹⁴C-dated pollen profiles from mires in the steppe belt of southern Russia are presented. On the basis of these and data from earlier investigations, the Holocene forest history of the southern part of Russia and Ukraine is reconstructed. The steppe belt is very sensitive to climatic oscillations and, in particular, to changes in evapotranspiration. The most favourable climate occurred between 6000 and 4500 B.P. (6800–5200 cal. B.P.), when forest attained its maximum extent in the steppe belt. The period 4500–3500 B.P. (5200–3800 cal. B.P.) was characterised by drier climate with the most arid phase occurring between 4200–3700 B.P. (4700–4000 cal. B.P.). During arid phases, the area under forest and also peat accumulation rates declined. Subsequently, a number of less pronounced climatic oscillations occurred such as in the period 3400/3300–2800 B.P. (3600/3500–2900 cal. B.P.) when there was a return to more humid conditions. During the last 2500 years, the vegetation cover of the steppe belt in southern Russia and Ukraine took on its present-day aspect. On the one hand, there is close correlation between the Holocene vegetation history of southern Russia and Ukraine and, on the other hand, the steppe belt of Kazakhstan and transgressions in the Caspian sea. Human impact on the natural vegetation became important from the Bronze Age onwards (after 4500 B.P.; 5200 cal. B.P.). Particular attention is given to the history of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), which had a much wider distribution in the southern part of eastern Europe in the early Holocene. The reduction in range during recent millennia has come about as a result of the combined effects of both climatic deterioration and increased human impact.     

History of agriculture in Mikkeli Orijärvi,eastern Finland as reflected by palynological and archaeological data

The introduction and development of cultivation in eastern Finland was studied by pollen and charcoal analysis of a palaeomagnetically dated sediment profile from Lake Orijärvi, in the vicinity of permanent prehistoric fields. The earliest changes of possibly anthropogenic origin are visible in the pollen data from 1630 b.c. onwards and indications of human impact become more evident from 500 b.c. onwards. According to finds of cereal pollen and AMS-dating of charred cereal grains from the oldest field layer, the onset of cultivation can be dated to the Merovingian period around a.d. 600. To a significant extent the pollen data reflect only the cultivation of Secale during the first 600 years. The marked intensification of agricultural activities including cultivation in permanent fields only becomes evident in the pollen data from about a.d. 1050 to 1080 onwards and the most intensive land use phase dates to a.d. 1300–1965. Archaeological and palaeoecological material indicate that swidden cultivation and permanent field cultivation were in use simultaneously during the late Iron Age. The combination of these techniques together with animal husbandry and hunting formed a subsistence strategy in the climatic border-zone outside the centres of the agricultural core areas.     

Carbonized plant remains from a pre-Roman Iron Age house site at Opperdoes,West Friesland,The Netherlands

The eastern part of the region of West Friesland (The Netherlands) was densely inhabited in the Middle and Late Bronze Age (Hoogkarspel culture). In the whole of this area, Iron Age settlement has only been found around Opperdoes. Carbonized plant remains from features associated with a pre-Roman Iron Age house near Opperdoes are discussed and compared with Bronze Age data from the region. The evidence suggests that the Iron Age food economy was different from that in the Bronze Age. Barley and linseed were possibly imported, while gold-of-pleasure was cultivated at the site.     

Vegetation changes and development of agriculture at „Kerfontaine“ (Sérent,Massif Armoricain,France)

As part of a new research programme, studies of peat bogs in Brittany are being carried out to trace the changes that have occurred in the course of time, and to determine the different regional stages related to the human activities of land clearance and agriculture. In this context, a palynological study of the Kerfontaine peat bog was undertaken to consider changes in local and regional vegetation dating from after about 7800 B.P. Local vegetation history from Neolithic times until the Middle Ages involved a succession of twelve pollen zones clearly related to variations in water level resulting from natural or anthropogenic influences. The dominant vegetation was alder carr, bog-myrtle mire and birch woods. Heath vegetation, which appeared at the end of the Iron Age, developed during the Gallo-Roman period, finally invading the entire bog in the Middle Ages. Regional vegetation history was characterised, among other things, by the presence of beech woods which developed after 3000 B.P. and then declined during the Middle Ages in conjunction with an increase of cultivation between the 8th and 11th centuries A.D., an indication of great activity during the Carolingian period. Human activity reached its peak around 1800 A.D. at the time of the first pine plantations.     

The history of rye cultivation in Europe

During recent years finds from several prehistoric and medieval periods have thrown new light on the history of the spread of rye. It is now proven that wild rye is indigenous to Anatolia and was already domesticated there by the early Neolithic at the beginning of agriculture. Secale migrated to Central Europe as a weed among other cereals, and single grains of weed rye have been recorded there since the early Neolithic. The number of finds increased during the Bronze Age and Iron Age, and the status of rye changed from weed to crop plant, probably in the course of the early Iron Age. This acculturation of Secale cereale in central and eastern Europe was obviously independent of the earlier one in Anatolia. The first stages towards deliberate cultivation happened unintentionally through harvesting close to the ground, so that the rye was permanently represented in the seed corn. From this point rye was able to take advantage of its competitive strength on poor soils and in areas with unfavourable climate. The start of rye as a crop in its own right during the pre-Roman Iron Age and Roman period presumably took place independently in different areas. The expansion of intensive rye cultivation occurred in the Middle Ages. However, new finds from north-west Germany, which are presented here, show that in this area rye has been cultivated as a main crop on poor soils since the Roman period. In two maps all rye finds up to 1000 A.D. are shown, which after critical consideration can be regarded as cultivated rye.     

Le chanvre (Cannabis sativa L.) : une plante cultivée à la fin de l'âge du Fer en France du Sud-Ouest ?

The ancient history of hemp (Cannabis sativa) is poorly documented in France and western Europe. Up to now, the oldest Cannabis seeds were not recorded in that area before Roman times. The waterlogged assemblage of the bottom valley site of Al Poux (Fontanes, Lot, France) delivered seeds that probably attest Cannabis cultivation in southwestern France as early as the Late Iron Age. Hemp was possibly grown in riverbank fields, but it could also have been carried to the settlement to be retted in the river. The special role of waterlogged assemblages in the preservation of hemp seeds is emphasised. It is stated that new investigations on this kind of context would be especially helpful to improve our knowledge of ancient hemp cultivation history. To cite this article: L. Bouby, C. R. Palevol 1 (2002) 89–95.