GAP-43 regulates NCAM-180-mediated neurite outgrowth

The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM), and the growth-associated protein (GAP-43), play pivotal roles in neuronal development and plasticity and possess interdependent functions. However, the mechanisms underlying the functional association of GAP-43 and NCAM have not been elucidated. In this study we show that (over)expression of GAP-43 in PC12E2 cells and hippocampal neurons strongly potentiates neurite extension, both in the absence and in the presence of homophilic NCAM binding. This potentiation is crucially dependent on the membrane association of GAP-43. We demonstrate that phosphorylation of GAP-43 by protein kinase C (PKC) as well as by casein kinase II (CKII) is important for the NCAM-induced neurite outgrowth. Moreover, our results indicate that in the presence of GAP-43, NCAM-induced neurite outgrowth requires functional association of NCAM-180/spectrin/GAP-43, whereas in the absence of GAP-43, the NCAM-140/non-receptor tyrosine kinase (Fyn)-associated signaling pathway is pivotal. Thus, expression of GAP-43 presumably acts as a functional switch for NCAM-180-induced signaling. This suggests that under physiological conditions, spatial and/or temporal changes of the localization of GAP-43 and NCAM on the cell membrane may determine the predominant signaling mechanism triggered by homophilic NCAM binding: NCAM-180/spectrin-mediated modulation of the actin cytoskeleton, NCAM-140-mediated activation of Fyn, or both.     

Angiotensin-(1-7) attenuates the chronotropic response to angiotensin II via stimulation of PTEN in the spontaneously hypertensive rat neurons

Several studies have focused on the beneficial effects of peripheral angiotensin-(1-7) [Ang-(1-7)] in the regulation of cardiovascular function, showing its counterregulatory effect against the actions of angiotensin II (ANG II). However, its actions in the central nervous system are not completely understood. In the present study, we investigated the intracellular mechanisms underlying the action of ANG-(1-7) using the patch-clamp technique in neurons cultured from the hypothalamus of neonatal spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) and Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats. Superfusion of neurons with ANG II (100 nM) significantly increased neuronal firing in both strains of rats, and this chronotropic effect of ANG II was significantly enhanced in prehypertensive SHR neurons compared with WKY rat neurons. The enhanced chronotropic effect of ANG II was attenuated by a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-kinase) inhibitor, LY 294002 (10 μM). Superfusion of neurons with ANG-(1-7) (100 nM) did not alter the neuronal firing rate in either SHR or WKY neurons; however, it significantly attenuated the chronotropic action of ANG II exclusively in prehypertensive SHR neurons. This counterregulatory effect of ANG-(1-7) on ANG II action in prehypertensive SHR neurons was attenuated by cotreatment with either A-779, a Mas receptor antagonist, or bisperoxovanadium, a phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome ten (PTEN) inhibitor. In addition, incubation of WKY and prehypertensive SHR neurons with ANG-(1-7) significantly increased PTEN activity. The data demonstrate that ANG-(1-7) counterregulates the chronotropic action of ANG II via a PTEN-dependent signaling pathway in prehypertensive SHR neurons.     

IL-10 Protects Neurites in Oxygen-Glucose-Deprived Cortical Neurons through the PI3K/Akt Pathway

IL-10, as a cytokine, has an anti-inflammatory cascade following various injuries, but it remains blurred whether IL-10 protects neurites of cortical neurons after oxygen-glucose deprivation injury. Here, we reported that IL-10, in a concentration-dependent manner, reduced neuronal apoptosis and increased neuronal survival in oxygen-glucose-deprived primary cortical neurons, producing an optimal protective effect at 20ng/ml. After staining NF-H and GAP-43, we found that IL-10 significantly protected neurites in terms of axon length and dendrite number by confocal microscopy. Furthermore, it induced the phosphorylation of AKT, suppressed the activation of caspase-3, and up-regulated the protein expression of GAP-43. In contrast, LY294002, a specific inhibitor of PI3K/AKT, reduced the level of AKT phosphorylation and GAP-43 expression, increased active caspase-3 expression and thus significantly weakened IL-10-mediated protective effect in the OGD-induced injury model. IL-10NA, the IL-10 neutralizing antibody, reduced the level of p-PI3K phosphorylation and increased the expression of active caspase-3. These findings suggest that IL-10 provides neuroprotective effects by protecting neurites through PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in oxygen-glucose-deprived primary cortical neurons.     

Molecular analysis of the function of the neuronal growth-associated protein GAP-43 by genetic intervention

GAP-43 is a presynaptic membrane phosphoprotein that has been implicated in both the development and the modulation of neural connections. The availability of cDNA clones for GAP-43 makes it possible to examine with greater precision its role in neuronal outgrowth and physiology. We used Northern blots and in situ hybridization with GAP-43 antisense RNA probes to show that GAP-43 is expressed selectively in associative regions of the adult brain. Immunocytochemical analyses showed alterations in the pattern of GAP-43 expression in the hippocampus during reactive synaptogenesis following lesions of the perforant pathway. Genetic intervention methodology was used to analyze the molecular nature of GAP-43 involvement in synaptic plasticity. GAP-43-transfected PC12 cells displayed an enhanced response to nerve growth factor, suggesting that GAP-43 may be directly involved in neurite extension and in the modulation of the neuronal response to extrinsic trophic factors. Studies of PC12 cell transfectants, in which the synthesis of GAP-43 was blocked by expression of GAP-43 antisense RNA, showed that evoked dopamine release was significantly attenuated in these cells. The use of gene transfer into neurons with the HSV-1 vector is presented as a method of analyzing the interaction of GAP-43 with signal transduction systems during neurotransmitter release.     

Neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells deficient in GAP-43.

The neuronal cell line PC12 undergoes a well-documented morphological and biochemical differentiation when treated with NGF and other growth factors. A hallmark of this growth factor-mediated differentiation is the induction of the growth-associated protein, GAP-43. Here we show that a PC12 cell line which is capable of NGF-, bFGF-, and cAMP-mediated neurite outgrowth is deficient in GAP-43 protein and full-length mRNA, as measured by immunocytochemistry, Western blot, Northern blot, and PCR analyses, respectively. We propose that the GAP-43 protein may not be essential for the initial extension and maintenance of neurites induced by these neuritogenic factors; rather, its role may lie predominantly in growth cone function and in the operation of the presynaptic terminal.     

A novel signaling pathway of ADP-ribosyl cyclase activation by angiotensin II in adult rat cardiomyocytes

ADP-ribosyl cyclase (ADPR-cyclase) produces a Ca(2+)-mobilizing second messenger, cADP-ribose (cADPR), from NAD(+). In this study, we investigated the molecular basis of ADPR-cyclase activation in the ANG II signaling pathway and cellular responses in adult rat cardiomyocytes. The results showed that ANG II generated biphasic intracellular Ca(2+) concentration increases that include a rapid transient Ca(2+) elevation via inositol trisphosphate (IP(3)) receptor and sustained Ca(2+) rise via the activation of L-type Ca(2+) channel and opening of ryanodine receptor. ANG II-induced sustained Ca(2+) rise was blocked by a cADPR antagonistic analog, 8-bromo-cADPR, indicating that sustained Ca(2+) rise is mediated by cADPR. Supporting the notion, ADPR-cyclase activity and cADPR production by ANG II were increased in a time-dependent manner. Application of pharmacological inhibitors and immunological analyses revealed that cADPR formation was activated by sequential activation of Src, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase)/protein kinase B (Akt), phospholipase C (PLC)-gamma1, and IP(3)-mediated Ca(2+) signal. Inhibitors of these signaling molecules not only completely abolished the ANG II-induced Ca(2+) signals but also inhibited cADPR formation. Application of the cADPR antagonist and inhibitors of upstream signaling molecules of ADPR-cyclase inhibited ANG II-stimulated hypertrophic responses, which include nuclear translocation of Ca(2+)/calcineurin-dependent nuclear factor of activated T cells 3, protein expression of transforming growth factor-beta1, and incorporation of [(3)H]leucine in cardiomyocytes. Taken together, these findings suggest that activation of ADPR-cyclase by ANG II entails a novel signaling pathway involving sequential activation of Src, PI 3-kinase/Akt, and PLC-gamma1/IP(3) and that the activation of ADPR-cyclase can lead to cardiac hypertrophy.     

GAP-43 as a plasticity protein in neuronal form and repair.

Neurons exhibit a remarkable plasticity of form, both during neural development and during the subsequent remodelling of synaptic connectivity. Here we review work on GAP-43 and G0, and focus upon the thesis that their interaction may endow neurons with such plasticity. We also present new data on the role of G proteins in neurite growth, and on the interaction of GAP-43 and actin. GAP-43 is a protein induced during periods of axonal extension and highly enriched on the inner surface of the growth cone membrane. Its membrane localization is primarily due to a short amino terminal sequence which is subject to palmitoylation. Binding to actin filaments may also assist in restricting the protein to specific cellular domains. Consistent with its role as a "plasticity protein," there is evidence that GAP-43 can directly alter cell shape and neurite extension, and several theses have been advanced for how it might do so. Two other prominent components of the growth cone membrane are the alpha and beta subunits of G0. GAP-43 regulates their guanine nucleotide exchange, which is an unusual role for an intracellular protein. We speculate that GAP-43 may adjust the "set point" of responsiveness for G0 stimulation by receptors, thereby altering the neuronal propensity to growth, without actually causing growth. To begin to address how G protein activity affects axon growth, we have developed a means to introduce guanine nucleotide analogs into sympathetic neurons. Stimulation of G proteins with GTP-gamma-S retards axon growth, whereas GDP-beta-S enhances it. This is compatible with G protein registration of inhibitory signals.     

GAP-43, a protein associated with axon growth, is phosphorylated at three sites in cultured neurons and rat brain.

GAP-43 is a neuronal calmodulin-binding phosphoprotein that is concentrated in growth cones and presynaptic terminals. By sequencing tryptic and endoproteinase Asp-N phosphopeptides and directly determining the release of radioactive phosphate, we have identified three sites (serines 41 and 96 and threonine 172) that are phosphorylated, both in cultured neurons and in neonatal rat brain. These three sites account for most of the 32PO4 that was incorporated into GAP-43 in cultured neurons; 8-15% of each site was occupied with phosphate in GAP-43 isolated from neonatal rat brain. Phosphorylation of serine 41 in cultured neurons was stimulated by phorbol ester, indicating that it is the only site phosphorylated by protein kinase C. The resemblance of the sequence surrounding the other two sites suggests that they may be substrates for the same protein kinase. None of the sites phosphorylated by casein kinase II in vitro was phosphorylated in living cells or in neonatal rat brain. These results show that GAP-43 is a substrate for at least one protein kinase in addition to protein kinase C in living cells and brain.     

Depolarization-induced differentiation of PC12 cells is mediated by phospholipase D2 through the transcription factor CREB pathway

The present study examined the role of phospholipase D2 (PLD2) in the regulation of depolarization-induced neurite outgrowth and the expression of growth-associated protein-43 (GAP-43) and synapsin I in rat pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells. Depolarization of PC12 cells with 50 mmol/L KCl increased neurite outgrowth and elevated mRNA and protein expression of GAP-43 and synapsin I. These increases were suppressed by inhibition of Ca²⁺-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII), PLD, or mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK). Knockdown of PLD2 by small interfering RNA (siRNA) suppressed the depolarization-induced neurite outgrowth, and the increase in GAP-43 and synapsin I expression. Depolarization evoked a Ca²⁺ rise that activated various signaling enzymes and the cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB). Silencing CaMKIIδ by siRNA blocked KCl-induced phosphorylation of proline-rich protein tyrosine kinase 2 (Pyk2), Src kinase, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). Inhibition of Src or MEK abolished phosphorylation of ERK and CREB. Furthermore, phosphorylation of Pyk2, ERK, and CREB was suppressed by the PLD inhibitor, 1-butanol and transfection of PLD2 siRNA, whereas it was enhanced by over-expression of wild-type PLD2. Depolarization-induced PLD2 activation was suppressed by CaMKII and Src inhibitors, but not by MEK or protein kinase A inhibitors. These results suggest that the signaling pathway of depolarization-induced PLD2 activation was downstream of CaMKIIδ and Src, and upstream of Pyk2(Y881) and ERK/CREB, but independent of the protein kinase A. This is the first demonstration that PLD2 activation is involved in GAP-43 and synapsin I expression during depolarization-induced neuronal differentiation in PC12 cells.     

Docosahexaenoic acid induces ERK1/2 activation and neuritogenesis via intracellular reactive oxygen species production in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells

Docosahexaenoic acid (22: 6n-3; DHA) is a long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that exists highly enriched in fish oil, and it is one of the low molecular weight food chemicals which can pass a blood brain barrier. A preliminary survey of several fatty acids for expression of growth-associated protein-43 (GAP-43), a marker of axonal growth, identified DHA as one of the most potent inducers. The human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells exposed to DHA showed significant and dose-dependent increases in the percentage of cells with longer neurites. To elucidate signaling mechanisms involved in DHA-enhanced basal neuritogenesis, we examined the role of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production using SH-SY5Y cells. From immunoblotting experiments, we observed that DHA induced the ROS production, protein tyrosine phosphatase inhibition, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/ERK kinase (MEK) phosphorylation, and sequentially ERK1/2 phosphorylation, the last of which was significantly reduced by MEK inhibitor U0126. Both antioxidants and MEK inhibitor affected DHA-induced GAP-43 expression, whereas the specific PI3K inhibitor LY294002 did not. We found that total protein tyrosine phosphatase activity was also downregulated by DHA treatment, which was counteracted by antioxidant pretreatment. These results suggest that the ROS-dependent ERK pathway, rather than PI3K, plays an important role during DHA-enhanced neurite outgrowth.     

Dl-3-n-butylphthalide promotes neurite outgrowth of primary cortical neurons by Sonic Hedgehog signaling via upregulating Gap43

Neurite outgrowth is the basis for wiring during the development of the nervous system. Dl-3-n-butylphthalide (NBP) has been recognized as a promising treatment to improve behavioral, neurological and cognitive outcomes in ischemic stroke. However, little is known about the effect and mechanism of NBP on the neurite outgrowth. In this study, we used different methods to investigate the potential effects of NBP on the neurite extension and plasticity of immature and mature primary cortical neurons and explored the underlying mechanisms. Our results demonstrated that in immature and mature cortical neurons, NBP promoted the neurite length and intersections, increased neuritic arborization, elevated numbers of neurite branch and terminal points and improved neurite complexity and plasticity of neuronal development processes. Besides, our data revealed that NBP promoted neurite extension and branching partly by activating Shh signaling pathway via increasing Gap43 expression both in immature and mature primary cortical neurons. The present study provided new insights into the contribution of NBP in neuronal plasticity and unveiled a novel pathway to induce Gap43 expression in primary cortical neurons.     

Activation of ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt by IGF-1 on GAP-43 Expression in DRG Neurons with Excitotoxicity Induced by Glutamate In Vitro

Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) is a neurotrophic factor and plays an important role in promoting axonal growth from dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. Whether IGF-1 influences growth-associated protein 43 (GAP-43) expression and activates the extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK1/2) and the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathways in DRG neurons with excitotoxicity induced by glutamate (Glu) remains unknown. In this study, embryonic 15-day-old rat DRG explants were cultured for 48 h and then exposed to IGF-1, Glu, Glu + IGF-1, Glu + IGF-1 + PD98059, Glu + IGF-1 + LY294002, Glu + IGF-1 + PD98059 + LY294002 for additional 12 h. The DRG explants were continuously exposed to growth media as control. The levels of GAP-43 mRNA were detected by real time-PCR analysis. The protein levels of GAP-43, phosphorylated ERK1/2, phosphorylated Akt, total ERK1/2, and total Akt were detected by Western blot assay. GAP-43 expression in situ was determined by immunofluorescent labeling. Apoptotic cell death was monitored by Hoechst 33342 staining. IGF-1 alone increased GAP-43 and its mRNA levels in the absence of Glu. The decreased GAP-43 and its mRNA levels caused by Glu could be partially reversed by the presence of IGF-1. IGF-1 rescued neuronal cell death caused by Glu. Neither the ERK1/2 inhibitor PD98059 nor the PI3K inhibitor LY294002 blocked the effect of IGF-1, but both inhibitors together were effective. To validate the impact of GAP-43 expression by IGF-1, GAP-43 induction was blocked by administration of dexamethasone (DEX). IGF-1 partially rescued the decrease of GAP-43 and its mRNA levels induced by DEX. DEX induced an increase of cell apoptosis. IGF-1 may play an important role in neuroprotective effects on DRG neurons through regulating GAP-43 expression with excitotoxicity induced by Glu and the process was involved in both ERK1/2 and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways.     

GAP-43 as a plasticity protein in neuronal form and repair

Neurons exhibit a remarkable plasticity of form, both during neural development and during the subsequent remodelling of synaptic connectivity. Here we review work on GAP-43 and G₀, and focus upon the thesis that their interaction may endow neurons with such plasticity. We also present new data on the role of G proteins in neurite growth, and on the interaction of GAP-43 and actin. GAP-43 is a protein induced during periods of axonal extension and highly enriched on the inner surface of the growth cone membrane. Its membrane localization is primarily due to a short amino terminal sequence which is subject to palmitoylation. Binding to actin filaments may also assist in restricting the protein to specific cellular domains. Consistent with its role as a ?plasticity protein,”? there is evidence that GAP-43 can directly alter cell shape and neurite extension, and several theses have been advanced for how it might do so. Two other prominent components of the growth cone membrane are the α and β subunits of G₀. GAP-43 regulates their guanine nucleotide exchange, which is an unusual role for an intracellular protein. We speculate that GAP-43 may adjust the ?set point”? of responsiveness for G₀ stimulation by receptors, thereby altering the neuronal propensity to growth, without actually causing growth. To begin to address how G protein activity affects axon growth, we have developed a means to introduce guanine nucleotide analogs into sympathetic neurons. Stimulation of G proteins with GTP-γ-S retards axon growth, whereas GDP-β-S enhances it. This is compatible with G protein registration of inhibitory signals. © 1992 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

The survival-promoting peptide Y-P30 enhances binding of pleiotrophin to syndecan-2 and -3 and supports its neuritogenic activity

Y-P30 is a polypeptide produced by peripheral blood mononuclear cells of the maternal immune system during pregnancy. The peptide passes the blood-placenta barrier and accumulates in neurons of the developing infant brain, where it enhances survival of thalamic neurons and displays neuritogenic activities. In this study, we identify pleiotrophin (PTN) and syndecan-2 and -3 as direct binding partners of Y-P30. PTN is known to promote neurite outgrowth of thalamic neurons due to its association with the proteoglycan syndecan-3. Via spontaneous oligomerization Y-P30 can capture large macromolecular complexes containing PTN and potentially syndecans. Accordingly, the neuritogenic activity of Y-P30 in thalamic primary cultures requires the presence of PTN in the media and binding to syndecans. Thus, we propose that the neurite outgrowth promoting actions of Y-P30 during brain development are essentially based on its association with the PTN/syndecan signaling complex. This identifies a new mechanism of communication between the nervous and the immune system that might directly affect the wiring of the brain during development.     

Cross-talk between protein kinases Czeta and B in cyclic AMP-mediated sodium taurocholate co-transporting polypeptide translocation in hepatocytes

Cyclic AMP stimulates taurocholate (TC) uptake and sodium taurocholate co-transporting polypeptide (Ntcp) translocation in hepatocytes via the phosphoinositide-3 kinase (PI3K) signaling pathway. The aim of the present study was to determine whether protein kinase (PK) Czeta, one of the downstream mediators of the PI3K signaling pathway, is involved in cAMP-mediated stimulation of TC uptake. Studies were conducted in isolated rat hepatocytes and in HuH-7 cells stably transfected with rat liver Ntcp (HuH-Ntcp cells). Studies in hepatocytes showed that cAMP activates PKCzeta in a PI3K-dependent manner without inducing translocation of PKCzeta to the plasma membrane. Inhibition of cAMP-induced PKCzeta activity by myristoylated PKC (zeta/lambda) pseudosubstrate, a specific inhibitor of PKCzeta, and G? 6850, a PKC inhibitor, resulted in inhibition of cAMP-induced increases in TC uptake and Ntcp translocation. Studies in HuH-Ntcp cells showed that inhibition of cAMP-induced PKCzeta activation by dominant-negative (DN) PKCzeta resulted in inhibition of cAMP-induced increases in TC uptake and Ntcp translocation. DN PKCzeta also inhibited wild-type PKCzeta-induced increases in PKCzeta activity, TC uptake, and Ntcp translocation. Myristoylated PKC (zeta/lambda) pseudosubstrate and DN PKCzeta also inhibited cAMP-induced activation of PKB in hepatocytes and HuH-Ntcp cells, respectively. Neither DN PKB nor constitutively active PKB affected cAMP-induced activation of PKCzeta, and wild-type PKCzeta did not activate PKB. Taken together, these results suggest that cAMP-induced activation of PKB is dependent on cAMP-induced stimulation of PKCzeta. It is proposed that cAMP-induced Ntcp translocation involves the activation of the PI3K/PKCzeta signaling pathway followed by the activation of the PI3K/PKB signaling pathway.     

SAM68: a downstream target of angiotensin II signaling in vascular smooth muscle cells in genetic hypertension

We investigated whether phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and 68-kDa Src associated during mitosis (SAM68) are involved in angiotensin II (ANG II) growth signaling in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) from spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). PI3K activity was assessed by measuring the phosphorylation of the regulatory subunit p85alpha and kinase activity of the catalytic 110-kDa subunit of PI3K. The PI3K-SAM68 interaction was assessed by coimmunoprecipitation, and SAM68 activity was evaluated by poly(U) binding. SAM68 expression was manipulated by SAM68 antisense oligonucleotide transfection. VSMC growth was evaluated by measuring [3H]leucine and [3H]thymidine incorporation as indexes of protein and DNA synthesis, respectively. ANG II increased the phosphorylation of p85alpha and kinase activity of the 110-kDa PI3K subunit in VSMCs from SHR and transiently increased p85alpha-SAM68 association. In Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rat cells, ANG II increased SAM68 phosphorylation without influencing poly(U) binding. In SHR, ANG II did not influence SAM68 phosphorylation but increased SAM68 binding to poly(U). ANG II stimulated phosphoinositol phosphate synthesis by PI3K in SAM68 immunoprecipitates in both groups, with significantly enhanced effects in SHR. Inhibition of PI3K, using the selective inhibitor LY-294002, and downregulation of SAM68, by antisense oligonucleotides, significantly decreased ANG II-stimulated incorporation of [3H]leucine and [3H]thymidine in VSMCs, showing the functional significance of PI3K and SAM68. Our data demonstrate that PI3K and SAM68 are involved in ANG II signaling and that SAM68 is differentially regulated in VSMCs from SHR. These processes may contribute to the enhanced ANG II signaling and altered VSMC growth in SHR.     

Activation of adenosine A2A receptor up-regulates BDNF expression in rat primary cortical neurons

As a member of neurotrophin family, brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays critical roles in neuronal development, differentiation, synaptogenesis, and neural protection from the harmful stimuli. There have been reported that adenosine A2(A) receptor subtype is widely distributed in the brain regions, such as hippocampus, striatum, and cortex. Adenosine A2(A) receptor is colocalized with BDNF in brain regions and the functional interaction between A2(A) receptor stimulation and BDNF action has been suggested. In this study, we investigated the possibility that the activation of A2(A) receptor modulates BDNF production in rat primary cortical neuron. CGS21680, an adenosine A2(A) receptor agonist, induced BDNF expression and release. An antagonist against A2(A) receptor, ZM241385, prevented CGS21680-induced increase in BDNF production. A2(A) receptor stimulation induced the activation of Akt-GSK-3β signaling pathway and the blockade of the signaling pathway with specific inhibitors abolished the increase in BDNF production, possibly via modulation of ERK1/2-CREB pathway. The physiological roles of A2(A) receptor-induced BDNF production was demonstrated by the protection of neurons from the excitotoxicity and increased neurite extension as well as synapse formation from immature and mature neurons. Taken together, activation of A2(A) receptor regulates BDNF production in rat cortical neuron, which provides neuro-protective action.     

Monokine induced by interferon-gamma acts as a neurotrophic factor on PC12 cells and rat primary sympathetic neurons

We found that a monokine induced by interferon-gamma (Mig, CXCL9), which belongs to the CXC chemokine subfamily, acts as a neurotrophic factor on PC12 cells and rat primary sympathetic neurons. PC12 cells were shown to express a single class of high affinity binding sites for Mig (670 receptors/cell, Kd = 2.9 nm). Mig induced neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Comparison of extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling pathways between Mig and nerve growth factor (NGF) revealed that these pathways are crucial for Mig action as well as NGF. K252a, an inhibitor of tyrosine autophosphorylation of tyrosine kinase receptors (Trks) did not inhibit the action of Mig, suggesting that Mig action occurs via a different receptor from that of NGF. Furthermore, Mig as well as NGF promoted PC12 survival under serum-free conditions and activated Akt/protein kinase B downstream from phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K). Because the PI3K inhibitor LY294002 prevented the Mig- and NGF-induced survival effect, this effect is probably mediated by the PI3K signaling pathway. Mig also promoted survival of rat primary sympathetic neurons that die when deprived of NGF. These results suggest that chemokines, including Mig (CXCL9) have neurotrophic effects on the nervous system.