The molecular biology of brain and mind development

The recent dramatic development of molecular neurobiology has focused almost entirely on biological events in individual brain cells, and it seems that many of the goals of such work will soon be attained. Yet, when we attain those goals, we will still have to ask how this information will enable us to understand the properties of brain cell collectivities and their presumptive roles in higher brain functions. Even general ideas about those functions are not yet well defined. Therefore, it seems worthwhile to start studying correlations of the molecular events to these higher functions to help delineate the molecular aspects that need study. It is readily appreciated that we cannot tell what other animal species see, hear, taste, smell and feel when touching something, though we can foresee the time when we will be able to detail the biochemical and biophysical consequences of all inputs to those senses. Thus, however deep our understanding of the biology of those species, we are unable to establish relations between their biological responses to inputs and their presumptive mental perceptions. Even though humans can use language to talk about those perceptions, we cannot even verify whether someone else's perceptions are the same as our own, as with the old question of whether two individuals see the same thing when viewing something blue. Questions about still higher mental functions of human brains are even less accessible to analysis and can be approached at best, by using correlations. In this article are a number of such questions and their current correlation-level answers.     

The statistical frame of mind in systematic biology from quantitative zoology to biometry

The twentieth century witnessed a dramatic increase in the useof statistics by biologists, including systematists. The modern synthesis and new systematics stimulated thisdevelopment, particularly after World War II. The rise of ``thestatistical frame of mind' resulted in a rethinking of relationship between biological and mathematical points of theview, the roles of objectivity and subjectivity in systematicresearch, the implications of new computing technologies, and theplace of systematics among the biological disciplines.     

Creativity in biology and in the human mind (Manifestation of Concepts)

The article is based on the widely held notion that creativity is a phenomenon studied in two branches of the science of life: psychology (in a wide sense) on one side, and evolutionary biology on the other. Therefore, an analysis of creativity of the mind should contribute to the solution of problems in biological evolution, problems which cannot be fully explained by the orthodox assumption of small steps of mutation and selection. This analysis is restricted to three classes of creativity, which are: a) organismal creativity, as exemplified by the creation of organs such as "eye" and "heart". b) mental-scientific creativity, exemplified by Newton's notion of "gravity" between planets and stars. c) mental-technological creativity, exemplified by Gutenberg's invention of "printing by movable types". The analysis of these classes is based on concepts, which are interrelated structurally by means of propositions. Two types of propositions are distinguished: factual ones named "cognita", and hypothetical ones named "hypothetical episodes". A further basis of the analysis is the assumption that creativity consists of several phases, of which incubation and insight are the essential ones. In carrying out the analysis, the writer shows that incubation functions on two or three lines of thought, one of which can be expressed by factual cognita, and the other ones predominantly by hypothetical episodes. Those several lines are integrated by means of logical implication, by which insight into a novel concept is obtained. In a second method of analysis, the several lines of incubation are represented by networks. In this method, the novel concept is obtained by integrating the individual networks into a common structure. It is proved that the methods of analysis described above can be applied to all three classes of creativity definined previously. Drawing conclusions from the analysis, the writer points out that the organismal concepts were manifested in biological evolution many millions of years prior to the appearance of man and his brain on earth. The writer, therefore, argues that a great number of concepts are not a creation of man's mind, but are entities which pre-existed man and were manifested to him. Such concepts may be conceived as forming a time-independent "conceptual universe" external to the "material universe" of galaxies, stars and organisms. Thus, for example, the concept of an "eye" was manifested in biological evolution as the organ "eye" of many organisms. Much later, this concept was manifested to man, when he invented the optical camera.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Cognitive ethology and applied philosophy: The significance of an evolutionary biology of mind

The broad field of cognitive ethology, in which internal mental states are inferred from the behavior they explain, is receiving increased attention nowadays from diverse scientists and philosophers. The nature of the results and how they are presented greatly influence how humans assess their place in the natural world and how they view other animals. The attribution of consciousness and intelligence to other animals suggests that they have moral rights. The results of comparative cognitive ethological analyses and how they are presented may play a large role in defining the domain of morally permissible research, and in the development of research strategies including decisions on feeding and housing, treatment, handling, and what happens to animal subjects when the research is completed. Scientists and philosophers interested in the evolution of behavior and mental continuity can have a significant impact on how others view the world.     

Thinking about flagellar oscillation

Bending of cilia and flagella results from sliding between the microtubular outer doublets, driven by dynein motor enzymes. This review reminds us that many questions remain to be answered before we can understand how dynein-driven sliding causes the oscillatory bending of cilia and flagella. Does oscillation require switching between two distinct, persistent modes of dynein activity? Only one mode, an active forward mode, has been characterized, but an alternative mode, either inactive or reverse, appears to be required. Does switching between modes use information from curvature, sliding direction, or both? Is there a mechanism for reciprocal inhibition? Can a localized capability for oscillatory sliding become self-organized to produce the metachronal phase differences required for bend propagation? Are interactions between adjacent dyneins important for regulation of oscillation and bend propagation? Cell Motil. Cytoskeleton 2008. (c) 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Brain aging: reorganizing discoveries about the aging mind

New discoveries challenge the long-held view that aging is characterized by progressive loss and decline. Evidence for functional reorganization, compensation and effective interventions holds promise for a more optimistic view of neurocognitive status in later life. Complexities associated with assigning function to age-specific activation patterns must be considered relative to performance and in light of pathological aging. New biological and genetic markers, coupled with advances in imaging technologies, are enabling more precise characterization of healthy aging. This interdisciplinary, cognitive neuroscience approach reveals dynamic and optimizing processes in aging that might be harnessed to foster the successful aging of the mind.     

Lessons learned about spaceflight and cell biology experiments

Conducting cell biology experiments in microgravity can be among the most technically challenging events in a biologist's life. Conflicting events of spaceflight include waiting to get manifested, delays in manifest schedules, training astronauts to not shake your cultures and to add reagents slowly, as shaking or quick injection can activate signaling cascades and give you erroneous results. It is important to select good hardware that is reliable. Possible conflicting environments in flight include g-force and vibration of launch, exposure of cells to microgravity for extended periods until hardware is turned on, changes in cabin gases and cosmic radiation. One should have an on-board 1-g control centrifuge in order to eliminate environmental differences. Other obstacles include getting your funding in a timely manner (it is not uncommon for two to three years to pass between notification of grant approval for funding and actually getting funded). That said, it is important to note that microgravity research is worthwhile since all terrestrial life evolved in a gravity field and secrets of biological function may only be answered by removing the constant of gravity. Finally, spaceflight experiments are rewarding and worth your effort and patience.     

Understanding autism: insights from mind and brain

Autism is a developmental disorder characterized by impaired social interaction and communication as well as repetitive behaviours and restricted interests. The consequences of this disorder for everyday life adaptation are extremely variable. The general public is now more aware of the high prevalence of this lifelong disorder, with ca. 0.6% of the population being affected. However, the signs and symptoms of autism are still puzzling. Since a biological basis of autism was accepted, approaches from developmental cognitive neuroscience have been applied to further our understanding of the autism spectrum. The study of the behavioural and underlying cognitive deficits in autism has advanced ahead of the study of the underlying brain abnormalities and of the putative genetic mechanisms. However, advances in these fields are expected as methodological difficulties are overcome. In this paper, recent developments in the field of autism are outlined. In particular, we review the findings of the three main neuro-cognitive theories of autism: theory-of-mind deficit, weak central coherence and executive dysfunction.     

Thinking big about global health

The Gates Foundation is funding high-risk research into new ways to improve health in developing countries, but ensuring that the fruits of these studies reach the people who need them most may be the biggest challenge of all.     

Chemical biology and bacteria: not simply a matter of life or death

Chemical biological approaches to understanding bacteria have largely been confined to screening for antibiotics. More complex phenotypes, such as virulence, have largely been studied using bacterial genetics. However, it has recently become clear that these two methods are complementary and that combining chemical biologic and genetic approaches to studying bacteria brings new power to old problems.     

Transforming Our Thinking about Transitional Forms

A common misconception of evolutionary biology is that it involves a search for “missing links” in the history of life. Relying on this misconception, antievolutionists present the supposed absence of transitional forms from the fossil record as evidence against evolution. Students of biology need to understand that evolution is a branching process, paleontologists do not expect to find “missing links,” and evolutionary research uses independent lines of evidence to test hypotheses and make conclusions about the history of life. Teachers can facilitate such learning by incorporating cladistics and tree-thinking into the curriculum and using evograms to focus on important evolutionary transitions.     

Thinking about Death Reduces Delay Discounting

The current study tested competing predictions regarding the effect of mortality salience on delay discounting. One prediction, based on evolutionary considerations, was that reminders of death increase the value of the present. Another prediction, based in part on construal level theory, was that reminders of death increase the value of the future. One-hundred eighteen participants thought about personal mortality or a control topic and then completed an inter-temporal choice task pitting the chance to gain $50 now against increasingly attractive rewards three months later. Consistent with the hypothesis inspired by construal theory, participants in the mortality salience condition traded $50 now for $66.67 in three months, whereas participants in the dental pain salience condition required $72.84 in three months in lieu of $50 now. Thus, participants in the mortality salience condition discounted future monetary gains less than other participants, suggesting that thoughts of death may increase the subjective value of the future.