Climatic and environmental conditions from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age (7000–3000 BP) in the Iberian Peninsula assessed using small-mammal assemblages

We have analyzed the palaeoenvironment and palaeoclimate of the beginning of the Holocene in the Iberian Peninsula on the basis of the small-mammal assemblages from three sites within the geography of the Iberian Peninsula: Mirador (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos), Colomera (Sant Esteve de la Sarga, Lleida) and Valdavara-1 (Becerreá, Lugo). These associations reveal that the palaeoenvironment was more humid than today in the sites under study, and the landscape was dominated by woodland and woodland margins in all the studied layers. Further, the climatic conditions were stable, but with winters colder than at present, above all in the Mediterranean area. Finally, our data have been compared with other environmental and climatic proxies, showing that human activities exerted little impact on the palaeoenvironmental conditions that occurred from 7000 to 3000 BP in the Iberian Peninsula.     

Prehistory of plant growing and collecting in northern Italy, based on seed remains from the early Neolithic to the Chalcolithic (c. 5600–2100 cal b.c.)

The stages of the early Neolithic and the spread of agriculture in northern Italy are difficult to determine and basically still unclear, since this region was influenced by deeply different cultures coming from both the Mediterranean coasts and the Balkans. The complex interrelations due to the contributions from both cultures are reinterpreted here thanks to recent data, modifying a picture which 15 years ago was believed to be definite. According to radiocarbon chronology, the appearance of the earliest farming communities in northern Italy should be dated around 5600–5500 cal b.c. Early farmers cultivated several cereal and pulse taxa, of which the more important were Hordeum vulgare/distichum, Triticum dicoccum, T. monococcum, T. aestivum/durum/turgidum, Lens culinaris and Pisum sp. In addition they gathered many wild plants. The spread of agriculture was a rapid phenomenon and within a few centuries agriculture was established into the Alps. Little is known about the middle and late Neolithic, with the Square-mouthed pottery culture “Bocca Quadrata”, from c. 5100 cal b.c. onwards, since most of the archaeological features discovered up to the present have produced only a few plant remains. We demonstrate the introduction of poppy and a few other innovations like a slightly increased cultivation of free-threshing cereals and flax. Archaeobotanical analyses from Chalcolithic or Copper Age settlements, from c. 3500 cal b.c. onwards, are even scarcer and a comparison with the earlier Neolithic settlements does not yet seem possible.     

Vegetation characteristics in the western Loess plateau between 5200 and 4300?cal. b.p. based on fossil charcoal records

Understanding terrestrial vegetation dynamics is a crucial tool in global change research. The Loess Plateau, an important area for the study of Asian monsoons and early agriculture, poses a controversial question on the potential vegetation and its pattern. Fossil charcoal as direct evidence of wood provides precision in species identification and hence vegetation reconstruction. Charcoals from the Dadiwan and Xishanping sites suggest a great variety of plants between 5200 and 4300?cal. b.p. in the valley area of the western Loess Plateau. The deciduous broad-leaf wood from Quercus, Ulmus, Betula, Corylus and Acer is very frequent and makes up almost half the total abundance ratio of the represented taxa. Meanwhile, some typical subtropical taxa such as Liquidambar formosana, Eucommia ulmoides, Toxicodendron and Bambusoideae, are present at the two study sites. The high abundance of Picea appearing between 5200 and 4300?cal. b.p. suggests the development of Picea forests in the valley of the western Loess Plateau. The assemblages of charcoal indicate that the mixed forest of evergreen deciduous and conifer-deciduous broadleaved trees developed in the valley of the Loess Plateau during the Holocene optimum. Precipitation is the main controlling factor for forest development. The increasing precipitation is the probable reason for the appearance of north-subtropical forests between 5200 and 4300?cal. b.p.     

Intensification of agriculture in southwestern Germany between the Bronze Age and Medieval period,based on archaeobotanical data from Baden-Württemberg

Vegetation History and Archaeobotany - A system of farming with an alternation of land use between being cultivated or left fallow as grassland (Feldgraswirtschaft) developed in southwestern...     

Wood use in a medieval village: the contribution of wood charcoal analysis to the history of land use during the 13th and 14th centuries a.d. at Pobla d’Ifach, Calp, Alicante, Spain

Excavations on the Rock of Ifach, Alicante, Spain have revealed the remains of a medieval settlement that flourished between a.d. 1297 and 1359. Wood charcoal analysis combined with archaeological evidence and historical records allow an assessment of the local vegetation of the area during the medieval period, the obtaining and use of firewood and the commercial routes for supplying timber. Pinus halepensis and to a lesser degree various matorral taxa were used for fuel during the main occupation phases at the settlement. The resource exploitation network of the settlement expanded over the adjacent coastal area, with firewood obtained from pine woodlands there. The timbers used in the construction of the settlement were mainly from pines that originated nearby (P. halepensis) or which were transported by river from woodland areas to the north which were controlled by the Crown of Aragon (P. nigra/sylvestris, P. pinaster). The partial destruction of the village in a.d. 1359 and its gradual abandonment are reflected in changes observed in fuel supplying practices that then concentrated on the local matorral vegetation of the rock itself.     

A study of cremated human remains from an urn field dating to the final phase of the Bronze Age, found at “Le Caprine” (Guidonia, Rome, Italy 10th-9th century B.C.)

In this paper cremated human remains from an urn field dating from the final phase of the Bronze age (Guidonia, Rome, Central Italy) were studied. The aim of this study was to identify the minimal number of individuals for grave and cremation patterns. The results show as the ways in which the cremations were carried out were archaic in all the elements that made them up.     

Vegetation changes in relation to fire history and human activities at the Peña Negra mire (Bejar Range, Iberian Central Mountain System, Spain) during the past 4,000 years

Human impact is a key factor in the evolution of landscape since the mid-Holocene. In this work landscape changes in a mountainous area in central Spain are examined through the analysis of pollen at Peña Negra mire (Cáceres), since its formation during the transition period between the third and second millennium cal. b.c. The study focuses on anthropogenic dynamics linked to the effects of livestock husbandry and the use of fire for forest clearance, as the mire is located close to a natural pass across the Bejar Range. With this aim, non-pollen palynomorphs and charcoal accumulation rate are useful indicators to assess the increasing role of human influence on vegetation. Grazing activities are continuously detected from the base of the profile, with maxima in the last millennium, while the use of fire is more pronounced from 3000 to 1000 cal. b.p. The discontinuous presence through the profile of forest species like chestnut, walnut, beech, elm or yew has also been analyzed.     

Wood usage and its influence on the environment from the Neolithic until the Iron Age: a case study of the graves at Flintbek (Schleswig–Holstein, Northern Germany)

The investigated area near Flintbek (Schleswig–Holstein, Northern Germany) was used as a burial ground from the Neolithic until the Iron Age. Due to modern agriculture, the above-ground funerary monuments have been destroyed. Rescue excavations from 1976 to 1996 recovered the archaeological remains. In addition to the archaeological reassessment of the findings, further scientific analyses were carried out. The results of the charcoal analyses are presented in this paper. The overall spectrum of wood species represents the typical species composition of mixed oak forests. Over the whole investigated time span (Neolithic–Iron Age) these species alternate with a second group of taxa: species benefiting from better light conditions. In times of intensive human impact, these light-demanding taxa gained considerable importance, showing the opening of the wooded landscape. In phases with less human impact, a regeneration of mixed oak forest is detectable. For the Neolithic it was possible to develop a more detailed picture of wood usage based on 162 radiocarbon dates of 106 samples. These illustrate considerable changes during the Neolithic, which resulted in a varied pattern of open land and closed forest influenced by human presence and land use. Another important aspect of the Flintbek area is the handling of samples deriving from different contexts. While charcoal samples related to fire usage or grave constructions contain only slight contamination, samples from fillings (pits, burial layers) are characterized by charcoal dating being either too old or even too young for the archaeological context.     

A contact model to simulate human–artifact interaction based on force optimization: implementation and application to the analysis of a training machine

Musculoskeletal multibody models are increasingly used to analyze and optimize physical interactions between humans and technical artifacts. Since interaction is conveyed by contact between the human body and the artifact, a computationally robust modeling approach for frictional contact forces is a crucial aspect. In this contribution, we propose a parametric contact model and formulate an associated force optimization problem to simultaneously estimate unknown muscle and contact forces in an inverse dynamic manner from a prescribed motion trajectory. Unlike existing work, we consider both the static and the kinetic regime of Coulomb’s friction law. The approach is applied to the analysis of a leg extension training machine with the objective to reduce the stress on the tibiofemoral joint. The uncertainty of the simulation results due to a tunable parameter of the contact model is of particular interest.     

Craniofacial variation,body size and ecological factors in aboriginal populations from central Patagonia (2000–200 years B.P.)

Previous studies have shown that ecological factors had a significant role in shaping the patterns of craniofacial variation among South American populations. Here, we evaluate whether temperature and diet contributed to facial diversification in small geographic areas. Facial size and shape of 9 osteological samples from central Patagonia (Argentina) were described using 2D landmarks and semilandmarks. Data on mean annual temperature, diet composition (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values) and femoral head maximum breadth, used as a proxy of body mass, were obtained for each sample. We then tested the association of body mass and the ecological variables with facial morphology using spatial regression techniques and a model selection approach. Akaike Information Criterion produced disparate results for both components of facial morphology. The best model for facial size included temperature and body mass proxy, and accounted for more than 80% of variation in size. Lower temperatures were related to larger facial sizes. Body mass was negatively associated with facial size and showed no relationship with the temperature. This suggests a relatively independent variation of cranial traits and body mass at the spatial scale studied here. Facial shape was not associated with the temperature or diet composition, contrasting with the patterns observed at larger spatial scales. Our results point out that the effect of climatic variables on cranial traits might be a source of morphological differentiation not only at large scales but also in small geographic areas, and that size and shape display a differential preservation of environmental signals.     

Vegetation changes in blown-down and scorched forests 10–26 years after the eruption of Mount St. Helens,Washington, USA

We examine patterns of vegetative change in blown-down and scorched forests in the blast zone of Mount St. Helens (USA), 10–26 years after the eruption. We compare trends in community attributes in four post-eruption environments, or site types, defined by severity of disturbance, presence/absence of a protective snowpack at the time of eruption, and seral state (previously clearcut vs. mature/old forests). Permanent plots established in 1980 at 16 sites were sampled at 5- to 6-year intervals between 1989 and 2005. Data on species presence and abundance were used to characterize changes in total plant cover, life-form spectra, species diversity, species turnover, and community composition. Due to the magnitude and heterogeneity of disturbance, vegetation re-establishment was gradual and highly variable among sites. Total plant cover averaged 36–70% after 26 years. Early-seral forbs were dominant except in snow-protected sites, where surviving shrubs were most common. Tree regeneration remained sparse after 26 years (<?6% cover in all but two sites). Species richness increased in all site types, reflecting greater species gain than loss, although rates of gain declined with time. Species heterogeneity, integrating the number and abundance of taxa, did not increase. Successional trajectories were distinct, but parallel among sites, reflecting legacies of pre-eruption composition, variation in disturbance severity, and differences in composition of early-seral colonists. Slow re-colonization by forest herbs and trees likely reflects seed limitations and abiotic stress rather than competition from early-seral species. Succession following this major eruption is both slow and contingent on pre-conditions, nuances of the disturbance, and species’ life histories.     

The use of webcam images to determine tourist–climate aptitude: favourable weather types for sun and beach tourism on the Alicante coast (Spain)

Climate has an obvious influence on tourism as a resource and as a location factor for tourist activities. Consequently, the tourist phenomenon in general is heavily controlled by meteorological conditions—in short, by the climate. In this article, the author proposes a set of weather types with which to establish the climate aptitude for sun and beach tourism. To determine these types, the density of use of one of the beaches with the lowest seasonality in continental Europe, the Levante Beach in Benidorm (Alicante, Spain), was analysed. Beach attendance was monitored using a webcam installed by the “Agencia Valenciana de Turismo”. The relationship between the density of use of the lower and upper beach areas on the one hand, and meteorological variables on the other, allowed comfort (physiological equivalent temperature) and enjoyment (fractions of solar radiation) thresholds to be established. The appropriate hydric comfort values were obtained by comparing the ranges proposed by Besancenot in 1989 [Besancenot (1989) Clima et turismes. Massom, París] with numbers of visitors to the beach. The wind velocity and precipitation thresholds were selected following consultation with the literature and considering the climatic characteristics of the environment under analysis. Based on a combination of these thresholds, weather types suitable for this specific tourist activity are defined. Thus, this article presents a method for assessing the extent to which a day on the beach can be enjoyed. This has a number of applications, for planners, the tourism business and consumers alike. The use of this (filter) method in climate databases and meteorological forecasts could help determine the tourist season, the suitability of setting up a business associated with sun and beach tourism, as well as help plan holidays and program a day’s leisure activities. Thus, the article seeks to improve our understanding of the climate preferences of that tourist activity par excellence: sun and beach tourism.     

Vegetation responses to rapid climatic changes during the last deglaciation 13,500–8,000?years ago on southwest And?ya, arctic Norway

The late-glacial vegetation development in northern Norway in response to climate changes during the Aller?d, Younger Dryas (YD), and the transition to the Holocene is poorly known. Here we present a high-resolution record of floral and vegetation changes at lake Lusvatnet, south-west And?ya, between 13500 and 8000 cal b.p. Plant macrofossil and pollen analyses were done on the same sediment core and the proxy records follow each other very closely. The core has also been analyzed using an ITRAX XRF scanner in order to check the sediment sequence for disturbances or hiatuses. The core has a good radiocarbon-based chronology. The Saksunarvatn tephra fits very well chronostratigraphically. During both the Aller?d and the Younger Dryas time-periods arctic vegetation prevailed, dominated by Salix polaris associated with many typically arctic herbs such as Saxifraga cespitosa, Saxifraga rivularis and Oxyria digyna. Both periods were cold and dry. Between 12450 and 12250 cal b.p. during the Younger Dryas chronozone, the assemblage changed, particularly in the increased abundance of Papaver sect. Scapiflora and other high-Arctic herbs, suggesting the development of polar desert vegetation mainly as a response to increased aridity. After 11520 cal b.p. a gradually warmer and more oceanic climate initiated a succession to dwarf-shrub vegetation and the establishment of Betula woodland after 1,000 years at c. 10520 cal b.p. The overall late-glacial aridity contrasts with oceanic conditions in southern Norway and is probably related to sea-ice extent.     

A cherry map from the inter-specific cross Prunus avium ‘Napoleon’ × P. nipponica based on microsatellite, gene-specific and isoenzyme markers

One hundred and sixty microsatellite (simple sequence repeat (SSR)) and six gene-specific markers revealing 174 loci were scored in 94 seedlings from the inter-specific cross of Prunus avium ‘Napoleon’ × Prunus nipponica accession F1292. The co-segregation data from these markers were used to construct a linkage map for cherry which spanned 680 cM over eight linkage groups with an average marker spacing of 3.9 cM per marker and just six gaps longer than 15 cM. Markers previously mapped in Prunus dulcis ‘Texas’ × Prunus persica ‘Earlygold’ allowed the cherry map to be anchored to the peach × almond map and showed the high level of synteny between the species. Eighty-four loci segregated in P. avium ‘Napoleon’ versus 159 in P. nipponica. The segregations of 32 isoenzyme loci in a subset of 47 seedlings from the progeny were scored, using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and/or isoelectric focusing separation followed by activity staining, and the co-segregation data were analysed along with those for 39 isoenzymes reported previously and for the 174 sequence-tagged site loci plus an additional two SSR loci. The second map incorporates 233 loci and spans 736 cM over eight linkage groups with an average marker spacing of 3.2 cM per marker and just two gaps greater than 15 cM. The microsatellite map will provide a useful tool for cherry breeding and marker-assisted selection and for synteny studies within Prunus; the gene-specific markers and isoenzymes will be useful for comparisons with maps of other rosaceous fruit crops. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Assessing the relative role of climate and human activities on vegetation cover changes in the up–down stream of Danjiangkou,China

气候与人类活动对丹江口上下游植被覆盖变化的影响 丹江口水库是南水北调中线工程的水源地,研究丹江口水库植被覆盖动态变化及其影响因素,对于了解南水北调中线工程的生态环境及制定保护措施具有重要意义。本研究采用归一化植被指数(NDVI)分析了1982–2018年丹江口大坝上下游植被的动态变化及其影响因素。研究结果表明,研究 时段内NDVI呈0.017year^-1的增加趋势(P < 0.05),显著增加的区域位于大坝上游河谷附近,显著减少的区 域主要分布在大坝下游流域和中心城区周围。气候变化和人类活动对NDVI变化的综合贡献率分别为92.03%和7.97%。大坝上游的人类活动主要体现在退耕还林等生态措施的实施,大坝下游的人类活动主要表现为城市扩张、建设用地占用耕地和林地等。     

The significance of climate fluctuations for lake level changes and shifts in subsistence economy during the late Neolithic (4300–2400 b.c.) in central Europe

In the last decades, data on the economy and environment of the Neolithic period of lake dwellings (4300–2400 b.c.) in central Europe has increased considerably and also palaeoecological data on lake level fluctuations has been thoroughly elaborated. Lake shores were mainly settled during warm and rather dry climate periods which caused a fall in the lake levels. Nevertheless, there were strong and partly very short-term shifts in the economy during the lake-dwelling period. These can be recognised only because the settlement layers can be very precisely dated by dendrochronology. In this article we discuss in an interdisciplinary way the possible interrelations between climatic and economic changes. To explain the latter, we assume crop failures as the main reason, which caused intensified hunting and gathering. There are three different possibilities which might explain this: cold and wet summers, severe droughts during spring and summer, or local over-exploitation of soils in densely settled areas.     

Plant economy of hunter-gatherer groups at the end of the last Ice Age: plant macroremains from the cave of Santa Maira (Alacant, Spain) ca. 12000–9000 b.p.

Up till now, plant macroremains of hunter-gatherer groups at the end of the last Ice Age and the very early Holocene have very rarely been investigated on the Iberian Peninsula and elsewhere. The use of systematic recovery techniques at the archaeological cave site of Santa Maira has allowed the recovery of a large amount of plant remains (fruits, seeds and wood) from Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic levels (12000–9000 b.p.) Charcoal analysis has allowed us to reconstruct the surrounding vegetation of the site. In the valley bottoms mesophilous woodland with Quercus was present even in the lowest layers (Upper Magdalenian) During the Late-glacial Juniperus was very important, in the early Holocene Quercus (both evergreen and deciduous) took over. Large numbers of macroremains of fruits (Quercus sp., Sorbus sp., Olea sp. and Vitis sp.) were found, but a significant quantity of legumes together with a few grass seeds have also been identified. This assemblage most probably represents the gathering of wild plant resources by the inhabitants of the cave, and allows us to reconstruct some of the food gathered from plant resources.