Why are some biodiversity policies implemented and others ignored? Lessons from the uptake of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation by botanic gardens

International agreements and policies play an increasingly prominent role in strategies to combat biodiversity loss. However, conservation policies can only have a conservation impact if implemented. Identifying factors determining the influence of a policy on institutions could improve the process of policy development and communication. We examine how and why botanic gardens have responded to the first phase of a global conservation policy (the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation GSPC) using quantitative (questionnaires completed by 255 botanic gardens in 67 countries) and qualitative (in-depth interviews with five gardens in five countries) methods. We found that while the majority of gardens were aware of the GSPC, older gardens in the global north, and younger global south gardens are most influenced by the GSPC. Gardens that are members of a global botanic garden network and gardens with larger budgets are implementing more targets. Targets implemented tend to be aligned with existing institutional aims. Gardens highlighted an absence of a mechanism to feedback successes and failures. The GSPC has recently been reviewed and new targets for the period of 2011–2020 developed. To widen the influence of the GSPC, dissemination should include guidelines on how institutions could implement the policy, with particular focus on influencing younger global north gardens and older global south gardens. There are plans to develop a toolkit to help gardens better understand and implement the GSPC. We recommend the toolkit include a system for GSPC implementers to communicate with each other and to feedback to policy formulators.     

Gap analyses to support ex situ conservation of genetic diversity in Magnolia, a flagship group

Worldwide about one third of all plant species is estimated to be threatened with extinction. Plants are generally under-represented in conservation. However, the global strategy for plant conservation (GSPC) sets forth 16 targets to halt the current and continuing loss of plant diversity within a framework for actions at global, regional, national and local levels. Target 8 of the GSPC directs that at least 75 % of threatened plant species be present in ex situ collections by 2020, but this target is far from being met. By analyzing where gaps in ex situ collections and research exist relative to diversity hotspots of threatened species, it is possible to identify and prioritize action. We undertake a gap analysis of ex situ collection needs in the genus Magnolia, a relatively well-known and valuable genus. Results indicate three main areas of biodiversity (China, Vietnam and Colombia) for the endangered Magnolia taxa. The present paper provides a critical overview of recent conservation activities carried out in the genus Magnolia throughout the world, focusing on genetic diversity analyses of the species.     

中国实施2020年全球生物多样性目标的进展

针对日益严峻的生物多样性丧失形势,国际社会于2010年通过了《生物多样性战略计划》（2011-2020年）。该战略计划确定了2020年全球生物多样性目标。采用“压力-状态-惠益-响应”模型,建立了评估2020年目标进展的指标体系。该指标体系包括生物多样性现状、生态系统服务、压力和响应4个方面,涉及17个一级指标、42个二级指标。研究表明,除目标2、16和18因缺乏相应指标无法评估外,目标1、3、4、5、7、10、11、14、15、17、19、20的相关评估指标均有不同程度的改善,表明这些目标的实施正沿着正确的轨道推进,特别是目标3（鼓励措施）、目标5（减少生境退化和丧失）、目标11（强化保护区系统和有效管理）、目标14（恢复和保障重要生态系统服务）、目标15（增强生态系统的复原力和碳储量）进展较大;但目标5中的草原生态系统保护,目标6（可持续渔业）、目标8（控制环境污染）、目标9（防治外来入侵物种）、目标12（保护受威胁物种）、目标13（保护遗传资源）的相关评估指标大多呈现恶化的趋势,表明虽然已开展了大量工作,但尚需采取更加有效的策略和措施才能实现这些目标。今后应进一步开发生物多样性价值、可持续消费、生态退化、农林渔业对生物多样性的影响、气候变化对生物多样性的影响、保护区的生态代表性和管理有效性、遗传资源和相关传统知识的获取与惠益分享等方面的指标,更加重视生态功能和生物多样性的恢复,重视濒危物种和遗传资源的保护以及外来入侵物种的防控。     

Importance of <Emphasis Type="Italic">in vitro</Emphasis> technology to future conservation programmes worldwide

The latest IUCN statistics show that of over 12,000 plant species, 70% are threatened, 19% are critically endangered and 28 species are extinct in the wild. Target 8 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) highlights the importance of ex situ conservation of critically endangered plants. Long-term germplasm storage for species with recalcitrant seeds needs alternative measures. In vitro methods complement seed banking and other ex situ measures and are vital for long-term conservation. Conservation Biotechnology at RBG Kew is currently working on a number of rare and threatened recalcitrant species from biodiversity-rich areas of the world to develop good quality in vitro propagules for cryopreservation, recovery and restoration projects. The importance of successful in vitro propagation methods, transplantation technologies, cryopreservation and international networking for the integrated conservation of these species are discussed in detail.     

A brief history of conservation at the Royal Botanic Gardens,Kew

When Princess Augusta and Lord Bute, followed by Sir Joseph Banks and King George III, started gathering plants at Kew, conservation on the site can be said to have begun. Although the primary motive then was to assist the expansion of the British Empire and trade, rare plants were gathered and some became rare or extinct in the wild as their habitats were destroyed. The primary motive in the nineteenth century was not conservation, but the history of conservation at the Royal Gardens at Kew dates back to its very origins. Subsequent regimes at Kew maintained and added to the collections thereby adding to their conservation value. Many early collections are of species now listed within the IUCN categories of endangerment. Environmental awareness and concern had begun by the time that Professor Jack Heslop-Harrison became director and he was the first director actively to initiate specific conservation programmes such as seed banking and work on red data books. From then on conservation became an integral part of the work programme of Kew and the focus on conservation has increased with each subsequent director. This eventually led to the transformation of the embryonic seed banking activities into the Millennium Seed Bank, the largest and most important bank in the world for the conservation of the seeds of wild species. It currently holds just over ten percent of all seed plant species. Conservation at Kew over the past three decades has very much been a balance between ex situ work and in situ activities to help conservation in the overseas areas where Kew scientists have experience. Throughout the history of the gardens there has been a vital interest in economic botany that has developed from moving plants around the empire to much work on the sustainable use of plants and ecosystems thereby better equipping the institution to subsequently work on in situ conservation. Significant conservation activity at Kew has been possible because it is being supported by a solid research programme that includes such areas as systematics and molecular genetics and laboratories, a large herbarium and a large library. Kew has played an important role in stimulating conservation work elsewhere and such units as the Threatened Plants Unit of IUCN and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) have their roots in Kew. Among other important conservation initiatives have been the creation of a unit to work with the implementation of the CITES treaty on the trade of endangered plants and a legal unit to work on issues of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). There is no doubt that the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew is at the forefront of plant conservation.     

The contribution of the Millennium Seed Bank Project to <Emphasis Type="Italic">ex situ</Emphasis> plant conservation in Chile

For a long time in situ conservation has been the main approach used to protect Chilean plant diversity. However, due to the high level of endemism of its flora (50%) and an increasing human impact on wild areas, ex situ conservation has become an urgent requirement to avoid the extinction of plant populations and species. Since 2001, the Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIA), Chile, has been working in partnership with the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, (Kew) through the Millennium Seed Bank Project (MSB) with the objective of conserving 20% of the Chilean flora as seeds in long-term storage. This seed conservation effort has focussed mainly on the endangered and endemic plants of the Chilean drylands. Towards the end of the first phase of the MSB some 1482 seed collections representing 850 species and subspecies have been collected and safely preserved in the INIA Seed Base Bank and duplicated at Kew. Almost 70% of the total species collected are endemic to Chile and several of them are endangered. Additionally, seed germination research has been conducted for nearly 400 species and seed collections have been used to propagate several threatened species. Germination protocols have been published and disseminated online. Over 4,500 herbarium vouchers have been collected, largely duplicated at Kew and at the national herbarium in Chile. As a result of the inputs of INIA and the MSB, collaboration has been extended to other national stakeholders, mainly for plant taxonomy and seed collecting. In this context two training courses have been run for 70 staff/students. This training has contributed to the raising of general awareness of the need for the long-term protection of Chilean plant diversity and to demonstrate the key role that ex situ seed conservation can play in meeting this need.     

Gaps in seed banking are compromising the GSPC’s Target 8 in a megadiverse country

Ex situ seed conservation is an effective strategy to help safeguarding plants from extinction. The updated Global Strategy for Plant Conservation’s (GSPC) Target 8 aims to include 75% of threatened plant species in ex situ collections by 2020, preferably in the country of origin. Halfway through the updated GSPC program, we evaluate the current state of knowledge and practice of ex situ seed conservation of threatened species from megadiverse Brazilian flora, contributing to this Target. We identify knowledge gaps and costs to achieve Target 8 through seed banking in Brazil within the time constraints of the GSPC and in a scenario of recent science budget funding cuts. Knowledge on seed storage behavior is available only for 24 Brazilian species (1.3%). Seed desiccation tolerance was concluded for 175 of 228 species, feasibly allowing safe storage of most Brazilian species at sub-zero temperatures. However, only 26 species (1.3%) are effectively banked in research institutions. Surprisingly, the percentage of banked threatened species hardly increased in the first 5 years since the update of the Target (0.55%, 2011–2015), and Brazil now faces the challenge of banking almost 1500 species during 2016–2020. Despite a major lack of commitment of Brazilian institutions and of knowledge to achieve the Target, the costs for banking the remaining species were estimated to be only US$3.9 million. We call for a nationwide coordinated effort of government agencies, policy makers and research institutions to include ex situ seed conservation in the environmental agenda to pursue achievement of the Target by 2020.     

Botanic gardens and climate change: a review of scientific activities at the Royal Botanic Gardens,Kew

In 2009, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (UK) launched its Breathing Planet Programme. This 10 year programme seeks to re-align Kew’s work to develop plant-based solutions to the challenges of climate change. Further to the development of the Programme, Kew has undertaken a review of its science projects with relevance to mitigating the impacts of climate change on plant diversity and people. The review has allowed Kew to better understand its current strengths and weaknesses in this area in order to plan for the future. The findings of the review could be relevant for science programmes in other botanic gardens. Botanic gardens play a fundamental role in the conservation of biodiversity to mitigate climate change impacts. Knowledge and data on plant systematics, distribution and physiology is vital for modelling and monitoring the impacts of climate change, to help to identify plant species and habitats most at risk of losing their wild diversity. Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank Project will safeguard 25% of plant species by 2020, while in situ projects are improving the conservation of threatened habitats. One challenge is to make such activities relevant and useful to other scientists, conservation groups and policy makers working to address climate change. However, botanic gardens must also develop working practices and projects that specifically address the challenges of climate change. Kew and a global network of partners are doing this in a variety of ways, and examples will be presented in this paper.     

What more can plant scientists do to help save the green stuff?

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) was the first such effort under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and had gone through a 3-year process to reach the level of maturity that enabled it to be approved by consensus by all Governments present at the key session in The Hague in April 2002. It provided a model for subsequent CBD workplans, with targets, and undoubtedly contributed to the 2010 target of reducing the rate of biodiversity loss. In the event, few of the targets were achieved, because of numerous constraints at both policy and implementation levels. Even so, the GSPC stands as an important milestone in the global effort to conserve biodiversity. However, few plant scientists can be satisfied that the essential steps are being taken to ensure the conservation of plants, although, of course, plant scientists are only one part of the complex effort that will be required. This paper offers some suggestions that might be worth consideration, building on the basic principle in politics that a strong constituency is necessary to victory. In other words, although plant scientists play a crucial role, plant conservation is too important to leave in their hands alone; far broader support is required, including from the private sector, agriculture, forestry, trade, economics, tourism and even the military. Although botanical science provides a solid foundation, other branches of science are also important, ranging from anthropology to zoology. The legal profession also has important contributions to make (as well as the ability to hamper progress – for example through using issues such as access and benefit sharing to limit the exchange of genetic materials for even noncommercial use). 2010 was the United Nations Year of Biodiversity, and the GSPC targets reached their due date. It therefore seems timely to add some additional perspectives to the effort to update the GSPC. This paper suggests ways to reach a far broader constituency, provides tools to those who are expected to achieve the targets, and suggests ways to build a strong international constituency to conserve the world's botanical wealth.     

The context and development of a global framework for plant conservation

A new international initiative for plant conservation was first called for as a resolution of the International Botanical Congress in 1999. The natural home for such an initiative was considered to be the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the CBD agreed to consider a Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) at its 5th meeting in 2000. It was proposed that the GSPC could provide an innovative model approach for target setting within the CBD and, prior to COP5, a series of inter-sessional papers on proposed targets and their justification were developed by plant conservation experts. Key factors that ensured the adoption of the GSPC by the CBD in 2002 included: (1) ensuring that prior to and during COP5, key Parties in each region were supportive of the Strategy; (2) setting targets at the global level and not attempting to impose these nationally; and (3) the offer by Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) to support a GSPC position in the CBD Secretariat for 3 years, which provided a clear indication of the support for the GSPC from non-governmental organizations (NGO).     

Comparing and contrasting threat assessments of plant species at the global and sub-global level

Evidence-based assessments of extinction risk are established tools used to inform the conservation of plant species, and form the basis of key targets within the framework of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC). An overall picture of plants threat assessments is challenging due to the use of a variety of methodologies and range in scope from global to subnational. In this study, we quantify the state of progress in assessing the extinction risk of all land plants, determine the key geographic and taxonomic gaps with respect to our understanding of plant extinction risk, and evaluate the impact of different sources and methodologies on the utility of plant assessments. To this end, we have analyzed a cleaned dataset compiled from IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and Regional Red Lists. We reveal that there are assessments available for 89,810 distinct species or 25% of all accepted land plant species. However unlike with other major organismal lineages the bulk of the plant species assessments are derived from Regional Red Lists, and not the Global IUCN Red List. We demonstrate that this bias towards regional assessments results in distinct taxonomic and geographic strengths and weaknesses, and we identify substantial taxonomic and geographic gaps in the assessment coverage. With species that have been assessed in common at both global and regional levels, we explore the implications of combining threat assessments from different sources. We find that half of global and regional assessments do not agree on the exact category of extinction risk for a species. Regional assessments assign a higher risk of extinction; or underestimate extinction risk with almost equal frequency. We conclude with recommended interventions, but support the suggestion that all threat assessments should be pooled to provide more data and broaden the scope of threat assessments for monitoring progress towards GSPC targets.     

Definition and insertion of the GSPC in the political context of Mexico

Mexico as a megadiverse country houses between 6 and 8% of the world's flora. However, the Mexican flora is facing challenges, including the presence of at least 981 threatened plant species and 618 exotic plant species, habitat loss, pollution, overexploitation of natural resources and the adverse effects of climate change, which are compromising its conservation and sustainable use. Mexico has been actively involved in the development and update of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) adopted by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). As a party to CBD, Mexico has established a Coordinating Committee for the Mexican Strategy for Plant Conservation (MSPC), which has adapted the GSPC to fit national needs and drafted a number of projects, indicators, means of verification and actors to ensure that the MSPC, as a public policy tool, really drives conservation and sustainable use actions among all sectors and lasts beyond the current administration. An agenda is being developed with activities that include the following: approaching Congress, identifying the relevance of the MSPC in the National Development Plan and the Mexican Biodiversity Strategy, making use of current environmental policies and an aggressive awareness programme. The MSPC includes simultaneous programmes of technical and political work.     

Sulla Variazione E Sul Significato Dei Composti Purinici Nelle Piante

Abstract

The collections stored at the Sardinian Germplasm Bank (BG-SAR) were analysed to verify if setting conservation priorities on the exclusive endemic flora of Sardinia (Italy) would make it possible to reach the 2010 GSPC Target 8. By 2010, 39.9% of the exclusive-endemics of Sardinia, 43.1% of the BGCI European threatened species and 65.0% of the taxa listed in Annex II of DIR 92/43/EEC present on the island had been stored in BG-SAR. Of the stored plants, 40% of those listed in the DIR 92/43/EEC, and only 25.69% of the BGCI threatened plants are represented by an adequate number of populations. For a few of the stored threatened plants (ca. 36%), and for 60% of the DIR 92/43/EEC ones, at least one seedlot with more than 5000 seeds is available. These data indicate that focusing on exclusive endemics gave a substantial, although not decisive, contribution towards the achievement of the 2010 GSPC Target 8 in Sardinia, and that more efforts are needed to guarantee the effective long-term conservation of these threatened taxa with the aim of reaching the 2020 GSPC target.     

Saving Europe’s threatened flora: progress towards GSPC Target 8 in Europe

The European flora is of global significance but many species are facing an ever increasing range of threats, especially the growing impacts of climate change. While various estimates have been made for the number of threatened plant species in Europe, an up-to-date European plant Red List does not presently exist. Target 8 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) calls for 60% of threatened plant species to be conserved in ex situ collections by 2010. In the absence of a European plant Red List, it is difficult to monitor progress at the regional level towards this target. To address this gap Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) has developed a consolidated list of European threatened species as a step towards a formal Red List. The database consists of national Red List data from 28 European countries and includes records for over 11,000 taxa. National Red List data were supplemented by information on the critically endangered plants of Europe provided by the Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle/European Topic Centre on Biological Diversity and the Conservatoire Botanique National de Brest. A list of regionally threatened species was extracted from the database and screened against BGCI’s database of plants in cultivation in botanic gardens (PlantSearch) and ENSCONET’s (European Native Seed Conservation Network) database of plants conserved in European seed banks. This analysis revealed that 42% of European threatened species are currently included in ex situ conservation programmes in Europe.     

Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 in the like-minded megadiverse countries

The group of like-minded megadiverse countries (LMMCs), which harbours a wealth of biological and cultural diversity, adopted a Carta in 2016 to accelerate progress towards achieving Aichi Biodiversity Target 11. This paper presents the progress made over the last two years and an analysis of the LMMCs’ national priority actions; approved Global Environment Facility, GEF-5 and GEF-6 protected area-related biodiversity projects; and relevant targets, goals, and actions from National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs). Through their recent actions, these countries have contributed to progress in Target 11, especially with respect to marine protected area expansion, where they contributed one-sixth of the area added in national waters over the past two years. Results indicate that if implemented as planned, actions proposed by the LMMCs will increase terrestrial and marine protected area coverage by 1,106,148 km² and 192,214 km² respectively. Of these commitments, 227,230 km² in terrestrial and 144,475 km² in marine protected areas have the highest chance of being implemented. In total, 741 commitments were identified from the above sources, with implications on the qualitative elements of Target 11 (coverage of areas important for biodiversity, areas important for ecosystem services, ecological representation, connectivity, effective management, equitable management, and integration into the wider landscapes and seascapes). Of these 741 commitments, 25% showed a strong likelihood of being implemented. The country-level analysis of all commitments indicates that equitable management and integration will show the most progress, measured against identified gaps, if commitments are implemented as proposed. This progress on the qualitative elements of Target 11 in the LMMCs will also provide benefits and co-benefits for other Aichi Targets and for the requirements of other multi-lateral environmental agreements, as well as at the global level.     

Strengthening the scientific contribution of botanic gardens to the second phase of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation

The need for action on the global environment is now well understood and governments, agencies, non-governmental organizations and botanic gardens have all been working in their various ways to promote environmental sustainability and reduce species and habitat loss for at least 10–20 years. The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) has been widely adopted, particularly by the botanic garden community, and has resulted in many successes despite failing to achieve its ultimate goal of halting the loss of plant biodiversity. The objectives and targets for Phase 2 of the GSPC, running from 2010 to 2020, mirror those of Phase 1 and had been largely agreed prior to their formal adoption at the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity in Nagoya in October 2010. However, to be successful, the scientific contribution of botanic gardens needs to be strengthened, as does government policy and commitment. Botanic garden research to underpin conservation action, including the role of botanic garden horticulture, training and international capacity building, has a major part to play and needs to be better understood and better coordinated. We provide examples based on the experience of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh in the UK and overseas. Government policy, at national and international levels, needs to reflect the fundamental importance of plant diversity in maintaining the biosphere and supporting humanity. The commitment of significant new resources is an essential prerequisite for success, but this needs to be well coordinated, inclusive of all stakeholders and carefully targeted. A further challenge is the need to integrate better the plant diversity-related activities of what are currently diverse and disconnected sectors, including agriculture, forestry, protected area management and botanic gardens.     

Review article: The catastrophic impact of invasive mammalian predators on birds of the UK Overseas Territories: a review and synthesis

The UK has sovereignty over 16 Overseas Territories, which hold some of the world’s great seabird colonies and collectively support more endemic and globally threatened bird species than the whole of mainland Europe. Invasive alien mammalian predators have spread throughout most of the Territories, primarily since European expansion in the 16th century. Here we review and synthesize the scale of their impacts, historical and current, actions to reduce and reverse these impacts, and priorities for conservation. Mammalian predators have caused a catastrophic wave of extinctions and reductions in seabird colony size that mark the UKOTs as a major centre of global extinction. Mammal‐induced declines of threatened endemics and seabird colonies continue, with four Critically Endangered endemics on Gough Island (Tristan da Cunha), St Helena and Montserrat directly threatened by invasive alien House Mice Mus musculus, Feral Cats Felis catus and rats Rattus spp. Action to reduce these threats and restore islands has been modest in comparison with other developed countries, although some notable successes have occurred and a large number of ambitious eradication and conservation plans are in preparation. Priority islands for conservation action against mammalian predators include Gough (which according to one published prioritization scheme is the highest‐ranked island in the world for mammal eradication), St Helena and Montserrat, but also on Tristan da Cunha, Pitcairn and the Falkland Islands. Technical, financial and political will is required to push forward and fund the eradication of invasive mammalian predators on these islands, which would significantly reduce extinction risk for a number of globally threatened species.