Phosphorylation of the surface transferrin receptor stimulates receptor internalization in HL60 leukemic cells

The transferrin receptor is a target protein for phosphorylation by activated intracellular protein kinase C (May, W. S., Sahyoun, N., Jacobs, S., Wolf, M., and Cuatrecasas, P. (1985) J. Biol. Chem. 260, 9419-9426). Recently we reported that the potent tumor-promoting agent phorbol diester or a synthetic diacylglycerol could mediate rapid down-regulation of the surface transferrin receptor in association with receptor phosphorylation in HL60 leukemic cells and suggested that this phosphorylation may provide a signal for receptor internalization. In this communication we have tested experimentally the predictions generated by the hypothesis that receptor phosphorylation may play such a role in the intracellular cycling of the transferrin receptor. Results indicate that phorbol diester-stimulated phosphorylation occurs stoichiometrically only on the surface-oriented receptor and precedes internalization. Using a specific inhibitor of protein kinase C, it was found that both phorbol diester-mediated receptor phosphorylation and down-regulation could be antagonized. While the mechanism of internalization of the phosphorylated receptor is not clear, phorbol diester treatment significantly increases the rate constant for endocytosis from 0.183 to 0.462 min-1, while inhibiting only slightly the rate constant for exocytosis of the internalized receptor from 0.113 to 0.079 min-1. Thus, we conclude that phorbol diester treatment affects intracellular cycling of receptors and establishes a new steady state distribution of surface and intracellular receptors. These data support a role for receptor phosphorylation as a trigger for internalization primarily by stimulating the process of transferrin receptor endocytosis while affecting the subsequent exocytosis of the receptor cycling only slightly.     

Protein kinase C does not phosphorylate the externalized form of the transferrin receptor.

We have investigated the phosphorylation of transferrin receptors both in intact sheep reticulocytes and in isolated plasma membranes. Phosphorylation of the receptor in intact cells or isolated plasma membranes is stimulated by phorbol diesters, suggesting that protein kinase C may be involved. Identical [32P] phosphopeptide tryptic maps are formed in the presence and absence of phorbol diesters. Using heat-treated membranes (which are devoid of endogenous kinase activity) exogenous protein kinase C phosphorylates the same peptides as the endogenous kinase(s). During maturation of reticulocytes to erythrocytes, the transferrin receptor is released to the medium in vesicular form. In cells labelled with [32P]Pi, the released receptor is not labelled with 32P and the exocytosed vesicles do not phosphorylate receptor with [gamma-32P]ATP. The absence of 32P in the released receptor appears to be due to a change in the receptor, since, even in the presence of exogenous protein kinase C, the exocytosed receptor is phosphorylated to approximately 8% of the level obtained with receptors from the plasma membrane. These data suggest that during maturation and externalization the receptor is altered so that it loses its capacity to act as a substrate for exogenous protein kinase C as well as the endogenous kinase(s). This change may be a signal which segregates the receptor for externalization from the receptor pool remaining for transferrin recycling during the final stages of red cell maturation.     

Epidermal growth factor (EGF) promotes phosphorylation at threonine-654 of the EGF receptor: possible role of protein kinase C in homologous regulation of the EGF receptor

Treatment of cells with tumor-promoting phorbol diesters, which causes activation of protein kinase C, leads to phosphorylation of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor at threonine-654. Addition of phorbol diesters to intact cells causes inhibition of the EGF-induced tyrosine-protein kinase activity of the EGF receptor and it has been suggested that this effect of phorbol diesters is mediated by the phosphorylation of the receptor by protein kinase C. We measured the activity of protein kinase C in A431 cells by determining the incorporation of [32P]phosphate into peptides containing threonine-654 obtained by trypsin digestion of EGF receptors. After 3 h of exposure to serum-free medium, A431 cells had no detectable protein kinase C activity. Addition of EGF to these cells resulted in [32P] incorporation into threonine-654 as well as into tyrosine residues. This indicates that EGF promotes the activation of protein kinase C in A431 cells. The phosphorylation of threonine-654 induced by EGF was maximal after only 5 min of EGF addition and the [32P] incorporation into threonine-654 reached 50% of the [32P] in a tyrosine-containing peptide. This indicates that a significant percentage of the total EGF receptors are phosphorylated by protein kinase C. A variety of external stimuli activate Na+/H+ exchange, including EGF, phorbol diesters, and hypertonicity. To ascertain whether activation of protein kinase C is an intracellular common effector of all of these systems, we measured the activity of protein kinase C after exposure of A431 cells to hyperosmotic conditions and observed no effect on phosphorylation of threonine-654, therefore, activation of Na+/H+ exchange by hypertonic medium is independent of protein kinase C activity. Since stimulation of protein kinase C by phorbol diesters results in a decrease in EGF receptor activity, the stimulation of protein kinase C activity by addition of EGF to A431 cells contributes to a feedback mechanism which results in the attenuation of EGF receptor function.     

Phorbol ester-induced redistribution of the ASGP receptor is independent of receptor phosphorylation.

Like virtually all endocytic receptors, the human asialoglycoprotein (ASGP) receptor is phosphorylated by protein kinase C at serine residues within the cytoplasmic domains of its two subunits H1 and H2. Activation of protein kinase C by phorbol esters results in hyperphosphorylation and in a concomitant net redistribution of receptors to intracellular compartments (down-regulation) in HepG2 cells. To test whether there is a causal relationship between receptor hyperphosphorylation and redistribution, we examined the effect of phorbol ester treatment on the ASGP receptor composed of either wild-type subunits or of mutant subunits lacking any cytoplasmic serine residues in transfected NIH3T3 fibroblast and COS-7 cells. Although the wild-type subunits were hyperphosphorylated in fibroblast cells, the distribution of neither the wild-type nor the mutant receptors was affected. In contrast, phorbol ester treatment of transfected COS-7 cells induced down-regulation of both wild-type and mutant receptors. These findings indicate that redistribution of the receptor is independent of its cytoplasmic serines and is not caused by receptor phosphorylation.     

Activation of protein kinase C accelerates internalization of transferrin receptor but not of major histocompatibility complex class I, independent of their phosphorylation status.

Phosphorylation of membrane glycoproteins has often been invoked as a determinant of receptor internalization and receptor trafficking in a more general sense. Here we have studied the trafficking of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) Class I molecules and transferrin receptor (Tfr) related to their phosphorylation status in the human lymphoblastoid cell line JY. High resolution isoelectric focusing (IEF) allows the visualization of phosphorylated and non-phosphorylated protein species simultaneously, using protein backbone-labeling. Analysis on IEF was combined with a neuraminidase protection assay, in which sialic acid modification of the N-linked glycans present on Tfr and Class I molecules is used as a reporter group for cell surface expression. Phosphorylation of Class I heavy chains and Tfr was induced by exposure of cells to the phorbol ester tetradecanoyl phorbol acetate. We show that 1) phosphorylation of MHC Class I molecules is restricted to the cell surface fraction, 2) phosphorylation of MHC Class I molecules by protein kinase C (PKC) is not correlated with their internalization, as no internalization of Class I molecules, phosphorylated or non-phosphorylated, could be detected, 3) the initial rate, but not the final extent of the internalization of Tfr is affected by activation of PKC, and 4) phosphorylated Tfr behaves in a manner identical to non-phosphorylated Tfr in terms of internalization. The effect of activation of PKC on internalization of Tfr therefore most likely takes place at the level of the internalization machinery. Our data concerning the internalization of MHC Class I molecules contrast with earlier studies describing constitutive internalization in the B lymphoblastoid cell line A 46 and in HPB-ALL cells.     

Regulation of transferrin receptor cycling by protein kinase C is independent of receptor phosphorylation at serine 24 in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts

Treatment of Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts with tumor-promoting phorbol diester or with platelet-derived growth factor caused the phosphorylation of the transferrin receptor by protein kinase C (Ca2+/phospholipid-dependent enzyme) at serine 24 and increased the cell surface expression of the transferrin receptor. The hypothesis that the regulation of transferrin receptor cycling by protein kinase C is causally related to the phosphorylation of the receptor at serine 24 was critically tested. Site-directed mutagenesis of the human transferrin receptor cDNA was used to substitute serine 24 with threonine or alanine residues in order to create phosphorylation defective receptors. Wild-type and mutated transferrin receptors were expressed in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts using the retrovirus vector pZipNeoSV (X). These receptors were functionally active and caused the receptor-mediated endocytosis of diferric transferrin. Incubation of the fibroblasts with phorbol diester caused the phosphorylation of the wild-type (Ser-24) human transferrin receptor, but this treatment did not result in the phosphorylation of the mutated (Ala-24 and Thr-24) receptors. The cycling of the phosphorylation defective receptors was regulated by phorbol diester and platelet-derived growth factor in a manner similar to that observed for the wild-type receptor. We conclude that the regulation of transferrin receptor cycling by protein kinase C is independent of receptor phosphorylation at serine 24 in Swiss 3T3 fibroblasts.     

Identification of serine 24 as the unique site on the transferrin receptor phosphorylated by protein kinase C

Addition of tumor-promoting phorbol diesters to [32P]phosphate-labeled A431 human epidermoid carcinoma cells caused an increase in the phosphorylation state of the transferrin receptor. The A431 cell transferrin receptor was also found to be a substrate for protein kinase C in vitro. Tryptic phosphopeptide mapping of the transferrin receptor resolved the same two phosphopeptides (X and Y) after either protein kinase C phosphorylation in vitro or treatment of labeled A431 cells with phorbol diesters. [32P]Phosphoserine was the only labeled phosphoamino acid detected. Phosphopeptide X was shown to be an incomplete tryptic digestion product which could be further digested with trypsin to generate the limit tryptic phosphopeptide (Y). Radiosequence analysis of [32P]phosphopeptide Y demonstrated that the [32P]phosphoserine was the second residue from amino terminus of the peptide. This receptor phosphopeptide was found to co-migrate with the synthetic peptide Phe-Ser(P)-Leu-Ala-Arg (where Ser(P) is phosphoserine) during reverse-phase high pressure liquid chromatography and two-dimensional thin layer electrophoresis and chromatography. The peptide Phe-Ser(P)-Leu-Ala-Arg is an expected tryptic fragment of the cytoplasmic domain of the transferrin receptor corresponding to residues 23-27. We conclude that the major site of protein kinase C phosphorylation of the transferrin receptor in vivo and in vitro is serine 24. This phosphorylation site is located within the intracellular domain of the transferrin receptor, 38 residues away from the predicted transmembrane domain.     

The effect of staurosporine, a protein kinase inhibitor, on asialoglycoprotein receptor endocytosis

Receptor-mediated endocytosis via coated pits is modulated by the activity of protein kinases and protein phosphorylation. We examined the effects of the potent protein kinase inhibitor staurosporine (SSP) on endocytosis of the asialoglycoprotein (ASGP) receptor in HepG2 cells. Staurosporine caused a rapid (<2 min) inhibition of ligand internalization from the cell surface. In contrast the rate of receptor exocytosis from intracellular compartments to the cell surface was not altered (t_1/2 = 8 min). This resulted in increased ASGP receptors at the plasma membrane (140% of control) while the total number of receptors per cell was unchanged. Receptor up-regulation was half-maximal at 30 nM SSP. At this concentration staurosporine also inhibited the internalization of iodinated transferrin by HepG2 cells and SK Hep-1 cells, another human hepatoma-derived cell line. Staurosporine was without effect on the non-receptor-mediated uptake of Lucifer yellow by pinocytosis. We investigated the possible involvement of protein kinase C in the inhibitory effects of staurosporine on receptor endocytosis. The active protein kinase C inhibitor H7 did not inhibit ASGP receptor internalization. Furthermore depletion of cellular protein kinase C by overnight incubation with 1 μM phorbol myristate acetate did not abrogate the SSP effect. Together these data suggest that the mechanism of SSP action is independent of the inhibition of protein kinase C. In conclusion staurosporine is a potent and rapid inhibitor of receptor trafficking which is specific for receptor internalization from the plasma membrane.     

Desensitization of the turkey erythrocyte beta-adrenergic receptor in a cell-free system. Evidence that multiple protein kinases can phosphorylate and desensitize the receptor

We have used a recently developed cell-free system (cell lysate) derived from turkey erythrocytes to explore the potential role of cAMP-activated and other protein kinase systems in desensitizing the adenylate cyclase-coupled beta-adrenergic receptor. Desensitization by the agonist isoproterenol required more than simple occupancy of the receptor by the agonist since under conditions where adenylate cyclase was not activated, no desensitization occurred. As in whole cells, addition of cyclic nucleotides to the cell lysate produced only approximately 50% of the maximal isoproterenol-induced desensitization obtainable. Addition of the purified cAMP-dependent protein kinase holoenzyme plus isoproterenol to isolated turkey erythrocyte plasma membranes mimicked the submaximal desensitization induced in lysates by cAMP. This effect was entirely blocked by the specific inhibitor of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase. By contrast, maximal desensitization induced in lysates by isoproterenol was only approximately 50% attenuated by the protein kinase inhibitor. In the lysate preparations, isoproterenol was also shown to induce, in a stereospecific fashion, phosphorylation of the beta-adrenergic receptor. Phosphorylation promoted by isoproterenol was attenuated by cAMP-dependent protein kinase inhibitor to the same extent as desensitization (i.e. approximately 50%). Phorbol diesters also promoted receptor desensitization and phosphorylation in cell lysates. The desensitization was mimicked by incubation of isolated turkey erythrocyte membranes with partially purified preparations of protein kinase C plus phorbol diesters. In the cell lysate, calmodulin also promoted receptor phosphorylation and desensitization which was blocked by EGTA. Desensitization of adenylate cyclase by isoproterenol, phorbol diesters, and calmodulin was not observed to be additive. These findings suggest that: (a) multiple protein kinase systems, including cAMP-dependent, protein kinase C-dependent, and Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinases, are capable of regulating beta-adrenergic receptor function via phosphorylation reactions and that (b) cAMP may not be the sole mediator of isoproterenol-induced phosphorylation and desensitization in these cells.     

Role of intracellular calcium and protein kinase C in the endocytosis of transferrin and insulin by HL60 cells

The role of the cytosolic free calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) and of protein kinase C on the internalization of transferrin and insulin in the human promyelocytic cell line HL60 was investigated. [Ca2+]i was selectively monitored and manipulated by the use of the fluorescent Ca2+ indicator and buffer quin2, while receptor-ligand internalization was studied directly by quantitative electron microscope autoradiography. Decreasing the [Ca2+]i up to 10-fold below resting level had no effect on the internalization of transferrin or insulin. Similarly, a 10-fold elevation of the [Ca2+]i using the calcium ionophore ionomycin caused little or no change in the endocytosis of the two ligands. In contrast, activation of protein kinase C by phorbol myristate acetate markedly stimulated the internalization of both occupied and unoccupied transferrin receptors, even in cells with very low [Ca2+]i. The insulin receptor was found to behave differently in response to phorbol myristate acetate, however, in that only the occupied receptors were stimulated to internalize. We conclude that the [Ca2+]i plays only a minor role in regulating receptor-mediated endocytosis, whereas protein kinase C can selectively modulate receptor internalization depending on receptor type and occupancy.     

Stimulation of epidermal growth factor receptor threonine 654 phosphorylation by platelet-derived growth factor in protein kinase C-deficient human fibroblasts

We have tested the hypothesis that the mechanism of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and phorbol diester action to decrease the apparent affinity of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor is the phosphorylation of the EGF receptor at the Ca2+/phospholipid-dependent protein kinase (protein kinase C) phosphorylation site, threonine 654. Protein kinase C-deficient cells were prepared by prolonged incubation of human fibroblasts with phorbol diester. Addition of phorbol diesters to these cells fails to regulate EGF receptor affinity or threonine 654 phosphorylation. In contrast, PDGF treatment of both control and protein kinase C-deficient fibroblasts causes a decrease in the apparent affinity of the EGF receptor and an increase in threonine 654 phosphorylation. Thus, the ability of PDGF or phorbol diester to modulate EGF receptor affinity occurs only when threonine 654 phosphorylation is increased. The stoichiometry of threonine 654 phosphorylation associated with a 50% decrease in the binding of 125I-EGF to high affinity sites was 0.15 versus 0.3 mol of phosphate per mole of EGF receptor when 32P-labeled fibroblasts are treated with PDGF or phorbol diester, respectively. It is concluded that EGF receptor phosphorylation at threonine 654 can be regulated by PDGF independently of protein kinase C, substoichiometric phosphorylation of the total EGF receptor pool at threonine 654 is caused by maximally effective concentrations of PDGF, and different extents of phosphorylation of EGF receptors at threonine 654 are observed for maximally effective concentrations of PDGF and phorbol diester, respectively. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that a specific subpopulation of EGF receptors that exhibit high affinity for EGF are regulated by threonine 654 phosphorylation.     

Regulation of the epidermal growth factor receptor phosphorylation state by sphingosine in A431 human epidermoid carcinoma cells

The regulation of protein phosphorylation by sphingosine in A431 human epidermoid carcinoma cells was examined. Sphingosine is a competitive inhibitor of phorbol ester binding to protein kinase C (Ca2+/phospholipid-dependent enzyme) and potently inhibits phosphotransferase activity in vitro. Addition of sphingosine to intact A431 cells caused an inhibition of the phorbol ester-stimulated phosphorylation of two protein kinase C substrates, epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor threonine 654 and transferrin receptor serine 24. We conclude that sphingosine inhibits the activity of protein kinase C in intact A431 cells. However, further experiments demonstrated that sphingosine-treatment of A431 cells resulted in the regulation of the EGF receptor by a mechanism that was independent of protein kinase C. First, sphingosine caused an increase in the threonine phosphorylation of the EGF receptor on a unique tryptic peptide. Second, sphingosine caused an increase in the affinity of the EGF receptor in A431 and in Chinese hamster ovary cells expressing wild-type (Thr654) and mutated (Ala654) EGF receptors. Sphingosine was also observed to cause an increase in the number of EGF-binding sites expressed at the surface of A431 cells. Examination of the time course of sphingosine action demonstrated that the effects on EGF binding were rapid (maximal at 2 mins) and were observed prior to the stimulation of receptor phosphorylation (maximal at 20 mins). We conclude that sphingosine is a potently bioactive molecule that modulates cellular functions by: 1) inhibiting protein kinase C; 2) stimulating a protein kinase C-independent pathway of protein phosphorylation; and 3) increasing the affinity and number of cell surface EGF receptors.     

Threonine 1336 of the human insulin receptor is a major target for phosphorylation by protein kinase C

The ability of tumor-promoting phorbol diesters to inhibit both insulin receptor tyrosine kinase activity and its intracellular signaling correlates with the phosphorylation of the insulin receptor beta subunit on serine and threonine residues. In the present studies, mouse 3T3 fibroblasts transfected with a human insulin receptor cDNA and expressing greater than one million of these receptors per cell were labeled with [32P]phosphate and treated with or without 100 nM 4 beta-phorbol 12 beta-myristate 13 alpha-acetate (PMA). Phosphorylated insulin receptors were immunoprecipitated and digested with trypsin. Alternatively, insulin receptors affinity purified from human term placenta were phosphorylated by protein kinase C prior to trypsin digestion of the 32P-labeled beta subunit. Analysis of the tryptic phosphopeptides from both the in vivo and in vitro labeled receptors by reversed-phase HPLC and two-dimensional thin-layer separation revealed that PMA and protein kinase C enhanced the phosphorylation of a peptide with identical chromatographic properties. Partial hydrolysis and radiosequence analysis of the phosphopeptide derived from insulin receptor phosphorylated by protein kinase C indicated that the phosphorylation of this tryptic peptide occurred specifically on a threonine, three amino acids from the amino terminus of the tryptic fragment. Comparison of these data with the known, deduced receptor sequence suggested that the receptor-derived tryptic phosphopeptide might be Ile-Leu-Thr(P)-Leu-Pro-Arg. Comigration of a phosphorylated synthetic peptide containing this sequence with the receptor-derived phosphopeptide confirmed the identity of the tryptic fragment. The phosphorylation site corresponds to threonine 1336 in the human insulin receptor beta subunit.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Protein kinase C phosphorylation at Thr 654 of the unoccupied EGF receptor and EGF binding regulate functional receptor loss by independent mechanisms

To test the functional consequence of phosphorylation of the EGF receptor at Thr 654 by protein kinase C, the normal Thr 654 human EGF receptor cDNA or a mutant encoding an Ala 654 were expressed in heterologous cells. In cell lines expressing both the Thr 654 and Ala 654 receptors, functional cell-surface Thr 654 receptors were reduced or were totally lost, but were not degraded, following activation of protein kinase C by phorbol esters (TPA), whereas Ala 654 receptors were unaffected. These data suggest that protein kinase C regulates ligand-independent receptor binding and internalization via phosphorylation of Thr 654 of the EGF holoreceptor. Because EGF induces internalization and degradation of the Ala 654 EGF receptor, at least two independent mechanisms can serve to signal loss of functional EGF receptors.     

Asialoglycoprotein receptor phosphorylation and receptor-mediated endocytosis in hepatoma cells. Effect of phorbol esters

The asialoglycoprotein (ASGP) receptor on Hep G2 cells undergoes constitutive recycling and ligand endocytosis in the presence of phorbol dibutyrate, at a 50% reduced rate relative to control cells (Fallon, R. J., and Schwartz, A. L. (1986) J. Biol. Chem. 261, 15081-15089). The relevance of receptor phosphorylation to these events was investigated by selective immunoprecipitation of surface receptors with polyclonal anti-human ASGP antiserum and pulse-chase labeling with [32P]orthophosphate to identify subcellular locations of initial receptor phosphorylation events as well as the eventual fate of phosphorylated receptor during recycling. The surface immunoprecipitation method recovers greater than 95% of surface ASGP receptors and only 5% or less of intracellular (brief[35S]methionine pulse-labeled) receptors. With this assay we detected low levels of ASGP receptor phosphorylation at the cell surface in control cells (0.1 mol of P/mol of R) which were rapidly (less than 1 min) stimulated 20-fold by 400 nM phorbol dibutyrate addition (1.7 mol of P/mol of R). Staurosporine, a protein kinase C inhibitor, blocks this stimulation by phorbol. Receptor phosphorylation at early time points in the presence of phorbol esters was restricted to the plasma membrane. Subsequent chase in the presence of excess unlabeled phosphate and phorbol esters lowered [32P] ATPi specific activity by 68% at 1 h. Surface immunoprecipitation during this chase period showed the phosphorylated ASGP receptors were rapidly lost from the cell surface (t1/2 = 20 min). In contrast, examination of intracellular receptor during the pulse-chase experiment in phorbol dibutyrate-treated cells showed the presence of phosphorylated pool(s) of ASGP receptors which were detectable for 6 h of chase. Since no labeled receptor can be detected at the cell surface at this time, the described intracellular phosphorylated receptors are in a non-recycling pool.     

Phosphorylation of the epidermal growth factor receptor at threonine 654 inhibits ligand-induced internalization and down-regulation

To assess the functional significance of phosphorylation of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor at Thr654, we compared the effects of 12-O-tetradecanoyl-13-acetate (TPA) on ligand-induced internalization and down-regulation between wild-type and mutant receptors that contain an alanine substitution at position 654. Activation of protein kinase C with TPA blocked EGF-induced internalization and down-regulation of Thr654 receptors and inhibited in vivo tyrosine kinase activity by 80%. TPA did not inhibit transferrin receptor internalization or constitutive EGF receptor internalization, suggesting that protein kinase C activation inhibits only the ligand-induced process. Inhibition by TPA of induced internalization, down-regulation, and kinase activity required threonine at position 654 since full-length Ala654 EGF receptors were significantly resistant to TPA inhibition of these ligand-induced activities. However, C'-terminal truncation further enhanced this resistance to TPA inhibition. The EGF-dependent internalization of kinase-inactive receptors truncated at residue 1022 was also impaired by TPA in Thr654 receptors, but not in Ala654 receptors, indicating that phosphorylation at Thr654 also interferes with tyrosine kinase-independent receptor activities. We conclude that the dominant regulatory effect of protein kinase C on the EGF receptor is mediated through phosphorylation at Thr654 which effectively inactivates the receptor. The submembrane region of the EGF receptor appears to regulate transmission of conformational information from the extracellular ligand-binding site to the cytoplasmic kinase and regulatory domains.     

The conserved Pkh-Ypk kinase cascade is required for endocytosis in yeast.

Internalization of activated signaling receptors by endocytosis is one way cells downregulate extracellular signals. Like many signaling receptors, the yeast alpha-factor pheromone receptor is downregulated by hyperphosphorylation, ubiquitination, and subsequent internalization and degradation in the lysosome-like vacuole. In a screen to detect proteins involved in ubiquitin-dependent receptor internalization, we identified the sphingoid base-regulated serine-threonine kinase Ypk1. Ypk1 is a homologue of the mammalian serum- and glucocorticoid-induced kinase, SGK, which can substitute for Ypk1 function in yeast. The kinase activity of Ypk1 is required for receptor endocytosis because mutations in two residues important for its catalytic activity cause a severe defect in alpha-factor internalization. Ypk1 is required for both receptor-mediated and fluid-phase endocytosis, and is not necessary for receptor phosphorylation or ubiquitination. Ypk1 itself is phosphorylated by Pkh kinases, homologues of mammalian PDK1. The threonine in Ypk1 that is phosphorylated by Pkh1 is required for efficient endocytosis, and pkh mutant cells are defective in alpha-factor internalization and fluid-phase endocytosis. These observations demonstrate that Ypk1 acts downstream of the Pkh kinases to control endocytosis by phosphorylating components of the endocytic machinery.     

Human T lymphotropic virus I infection deregulates surface expression of the transferrin receptor

Human T-lymphotropic virus I (HTLV-I) is an etiologic agent in adult T cell leukemia. In an effort to understand the relationship between HTLV-I infection and malignant transformation, we have examined transferrin receptor expression in HTLV-I-infected cells. Transferrin receptor expression in normal T cells is tightly regulated and essential for cell proliferation. We have used matched T cell sets originating from a normal donor, consisting of tetanus toxoid-specific normal T cell clones (TM3 and TM5) and their in vitro HTLV-I-infected counterparts (TM3H and TM5H). Using these matched sets of virus-infected and normal T cells, we have determined that HTLV-I infection leads to hyperexpression of surface transferrin receptors (five- to six-fold higher than normal counterparts). Although the growth rates of the virus-infected cells did not differ significantly from their normal controls, HTLV-I-infected cells constitutively hyperexpressed surface transferrin receptors, whereas the level of surface receptor expression of normal counterpart cells varied during the cycle of antigenic stimulation. Immunoprecipitation of total (surface plus cytoplasmic) transferrin expression showed that the HTLV-I-infected cells did not possess a greater total number of transferrin receptors than their normal counterparts. This data was supported by Northern blot analysis, which showed equivalent transferrin receptor mRNA expression in HTLV-I-infected and uninfected cells. Functional analysis revealed a marked defect in 59Fe-transferrin internalization in the HTLV-I-infected cells. Furthermore, the HTLV-I-infected cells showed markedly decreased transferrin receptor phosphorylation and internalization in response to active phorbol ester. Thus the data demonstrate that in peripheral blood T cells, HTLV-I infection is accompanied by surface transferrin receptor overexpression secondary to subcellular redistribution and defective internalization.     

Parathyroid hormone receptor internalization is independent of protein kinase A and phospholipase C activation

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and PTH-related peptide (PTHrP) binding to their common receptor stimulates second messenger accumulation, receptor phosphorylation, and internalization. LLC-PK(1) cells expressing a green fluorescent protein-tagged PTH/PTHrP receptor show time- and dose-dependent receptor internalization. The internalized receptors colocalize with clathrin-coated pits. Internalization is stimulated by PTH analogs that bind to and activate the PTH/PTHrP receptor. Cell lines expressing a mutant protein kinase A regulatory subunit that is resistant to cAMP and/or a mutant receptor (DSEL mutant) that does not activate phospholipase C internalize their receptors normally. In addition, internalization of the wild-type receptor and the DSEL mutant is stimulated by the PTH analog [Gly(1),Arg(19)]hPTH-(1-28), which does not stimulate phospholipase C. Forskolin, IBMX, and the active phorbol ester, phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate, did not promote receptor internalization or increase PTH-induced internalization. These data indicate that ligand-induced internalization of the PTH/PTHrP receptor requires both ligand binding and receptor activation but does not involve stimulation of adenylate cyclase/protein kinase A or phospholipase C/protein kinase C.     

Effects of epidermal growth factor on transferrin receptor phosphorylation and surface expression in malignant epithelial cells

The transferrin (Tf) receptor is a major transmembrane protein which provides iron for normal and malignant cell growth. Epidermal growth factor (EGF) has been reported to rapidly and transiently alter the number of surface Tf receptors in normal and transformed epithelial cells. To investigate mechanisms of EGF-induced changes in surface Tf display, EGF effects on surface Tf receptors were compared in two cell lines which differ in their number of EGF receptors and growth responses to EGF. In cloned A431 cells with high receptor numbers which are growth-inhibited by EGF, EGF caused a 50% decrease in Tf receptor expression after 30 min. In contrast, EGF induced a rapid, transitory increase (within 5 min) in the number of surface Tf receptors on KB carcinoma cells which returned to basal levels by 15 min. The observed changes in Tf receptor display were due to altered receptor distribution and not changes in ligand affinity or total cellular transferrin receptor pools. Anti-EGF receptor monoclonal antibody blocked effects of EGF on transferrin receptor expression. Since the antibody is internalized and causes EGF receptor down-regulation, effects on transferrin receptor expression were independent of these events. EGF-induced alterations in Tf receptor display occurred even when cells were pretreated with colchicine, suggesting that changes in surface Tf binding were not mediated by cytoskeletal components. Na orthovanadate, which mimics some early cellular effects of EGF, duplicated EGF's effects on A431 Tf receptors, but had no effect on KB cells, suggesting these responses occur by differing mechanisms. To determine whether EGF caused changes in Tf receptor phosphorylation, 32P-labelled Tf receptors were immunoprecipitated after EGF treatment. After exposure to EGF, A431 cells showed no change in Tf phosphorylation, but KB cells showed a transient, 6-fold increase in transferrin receptor phosphorylation on serine residues. In both A431 and KB cells, phorbol ester (PMA) also increased phosphorylation on transferrin receptors, but had little effect on surface Tf receptor expression. In malignant cell lines, EGE induces rapid, variable changes in transferrin receptor expression and phosphorylation which differ from the effects of PMA. These early responses to EGF appear to differ with the cell type and correlate poorly with alterations in Tf receptor phosphorylation. These results suggest Tf receptor phosphorylation does not regulate Tf receptor display in all cells.