Keeper-Animal Interactions: Differences between the Behaviour of Zoo Animals Affect Stockmanship

Stockmanship is a term used to describe the management of animals with a good stockperson someone who does this in a in a safe, effective, and low-stress manner for both the stock-keeper and animals involved. Although impacts of unfamiliar zoo visitors on animal behaviour have been extensively studied, the impact of stockmanship i.e familiar zoo keepers is a new area of research; which could reveal significant ramifications for zoo animal behaviour and welfare. It is likely that different relationships are formed dependant on the unique keeper-animal dyad (human-animal interaction, HAI). The aims of this study were to (1) investigate if unique keeper-animal dyads were formed in zoos, (2) determine whether keepers differed in their interactions towards animals regarding their attitude, animal knowledge and experience and (3) explore what factors affect keeper-animal dyads and ultimately influence animal behaviour and welfare. Eight black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), eleven Chapman’s zebra (Equus burchellii), and twelve Sulawesi crested black macaques (Macaca nigra) were studied in 6 zoos across the UK and USA. Subtle cues and commands directed by keepers towards animals were identified. The animals latency to respond and the respective behavioural response (cue-response) was recorded per keeper-animal dyad (n = 93). A questionnaire was constructed following a five-point Likert Scale design to record keeper demographic information and assess the job satisfaction of keepers, their attitude towards the animals and their perceived relationship with them. There was a significant difference in the animals’ latency to appropriately respond after cues and commands from different keepers, indicating unique keeper-animal dyads were formed. Stockmanship style was also different between keepers; two main components contributed equally towards this: “attitude towards the animals” and “knowledge and experience of the animals”. In this novel study, data demonstrated unique dyads were formed between keepers and zoo animals, which influenced animal behaviour.     

Measuring the Strength of Human–Animal Bonds in Zoos

Repeated interactions within individual human and animal dyads can lead to the establishment of human–animal relationships (HARs), which may vary in quality from good to bad, defined in terms of the positivity (e.g., friendly contact, play) or negativity (e.g., aggression) of the interactions on which they are based. Particularly good HARs can be regarded as Human– Animal Bonds (HABs) if they are reciprocal and promote wellbeing in both parties. Although there is extensive evidence of the effects of HARs in agricultural animals and HABs in companion animals, there has been less investigation of these relationships in zoos, even though the development of HARs/HABs between zoo animals and their keepers could have important consequences for the welfare of both. Here we apply a modified version of the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS) in a zoo setting to quantify the strength of attachment of a sample of 22 keepers to the animals in their care at the zoo (ZA), in comparison with their attachment to their companion animals at home (PA). Results showed that mean PA scores (47.54 ± 3.6) were significantly higher than mean ZA scores (32.89 ± 2.6; t = –5.16, df = 13, p < 0.001), indicating stronger attachment to the companion animals. PA scores were lower in keepers who thought it inappropriate to have a bond with a zoo animal, compared with those who deemed it appropriate. Thus, HABs do appear to occur in the zoo context, though they are weaker than those developed in the home. This work also shows that a modified LAPS questionnaire is a suitable instrument for further investigation of HABs in zoos.     

Advances in Applied Zoo Animal Welfare Science

ABSTRACT

Nonhuman animal welfare science is the scientific study of the welfare state of animals that attempts to make inferences about how animals feel from their behavior, endocrine function, and/or signs of physical health. These welfare measurements are applicable within zoos yet inherently more complex than in farms and laboratories. This complexity is due to the vast number of species housed, lack of fundamental biological information, and relatively lower sample sizes and levels of experimental control. This article summarizes the invited presentations on the topic of “Advances in Applied Animal Welfare Science,” given at the Fourth Global Animal Welfare Congress held jointly by the Detroit Zoological Society and the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums in 2017. The article focuses on current trends in research on zoo animal welfare under the following themes: (a) human–animal interactions and relationships, (b) anticipatory behavior, (c) cognitive enrichment, (d) behavioral biology, and (e) reproductive and population management. It highlights areas in which further advancements in zoo animal welfare science are needed and the challenges that may be faced in doing so.     

What Can Zookeepers Tell Us About Interacting With Big Cats in Captivity?

Despite the potential dangers involved, interactions between zookeepers and captive big cats are increasing. Research with other animals, particularly nonhuman primates, suggests that closer interactions can be beneficial not only for the animals and their keepers, but also for zoo visitors. This study sought to determine whether the same benefits may apply to keeper‐big cat interactions. An online questionnaire was completed by 86 keepers worldwide, assessing which types of handling (hands‐on, protected, hands‐off) they practice with their big cats, whether they practice training, and what their opinions of these methods are (through a series of rating scales and open‐ended questions). Protected contact was the most frequently used handling method among this sample, particularly with lions, tigers, and cheetahs, and training was practiced by the majority of participants with all big cat species. Participants perceived protected contact as the most beneficial handling practice for big cats, keepers, and visitors, noting how it can allow a close bond between keeper and cat, as well as its educational value for zoo visitors. Contrastingly, concerns were raised about the use of hands‐on approaches, particularly with regard to the safety of all parties involved and the potential for wrong messages to be sent to visitors. Further, training was reported to be more beneficial for each group than any handling practice, yielding similar potential benefits as protected contact. Consistent with existing information with other species, these findings will be useful in directing objective research examining the use of different handling and training methods with big cats. Zoo Biol. 32:142–151, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

A close keeper-nonhuman animal distance does not reduce undesirable behavior in contact yard goats and sheep

This study investigated the relation between zookeeper-nonhuman animal distance and the undesirable behavior goats and sheep exhibited toward visitors of Zoo Atlanta's contact yard. It hypothesized that a close distance between keeper and animal would be associated with a lower rate of undesirable behavior than would a distant keeper-animal distance. The study recorded rate of undesirable behavior exhibited, number of visitors in the yard, and number of times visitors touched an animal under near and distant keeper-animal distances. Seven African pygmy goats (Capra hircus) and 4 Romanov sheep (Ovis aries) were the subjects. The study used linear regression methods to analyze approximately 48 hr of behavioral data collected using a focal sampling technique. Findings indicated a familiar animal keeper nearby was not associated with lower rates of undesirable behavior toward visitors. Higher rates of undesirable behavior occurred when keepers were nearby than when they were distant. The study also found that undesirable behavior increased as visitors' touching of the animals increased. Applying the study's findings may improve human-animal interactions and increase animal well-being in a contact yard through animal management techniques.     

A Case for a Naturalistic Perspective: Response to Lawrence and Bekoff

ABSTRACT

We evaluated three forms of primate free-ranging displays at Singapore Zoo, each with varying restrictions on ranging area and freedom for the primates, as well as visitor proximity. The cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus), the white-faced saki (Pithecia pithecia), and the orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) displays illustrated differences in primate visibility to visitors, visitor–primate proximity, frequency of visitor–primate interactions, visitor crowd size, and responses. Amongst the three free-ranging displays, the cotton-top tamarins offered the highest visibility, closest proximity between visitors and primates, highest interaction levels, and attracted the largest crowds. However, undesirable interactions occurred most between the cotton-top tamarins and visitors. We found consistently positive visitor perceptions (total n = 464) of all three primate displays in terms of visitor enjoyment (> 95%); naturalistic zoo experience (> 95%); learning experience (> 90%); and the promotion of good welfare (> 90%). Increasingly naturalistic displays of animals in zoos through the free-ranging of animals can have considerable benefits for both zoo visitors as well as animals, and is a display concept that deserves implementation on a wider scale. Design and implementation of such displays should, however, achieve a balance to maximise display value and animal welfare while curtailing the effects of undesirable human–primate interactions through the restriction of visitor–primate proximity.     

Human–Animal Bonds Between Zoo Professionals and the Animals in Their Care

Some human‐animal relationships can be so positive that they confer emotional well‐being to both partners and can thus be viewed as bonds. In this study, 130 delegates at zoo research and training events completed questionnaires in which they were asked about their professional work in the zoo and whether they believed they had established bonds with any animals. They were also asked to indicate agreement or disagreement with several statements about human‐animal bonds. Results showed that many zoo professionals consider that they have established bonds with some of their animals; 103 respondents believed that they had a bond with at least one animal, and 78 of these identified that the bond was with a zoo animal. The most frequent bonds reported were with primates (n = 24) and carnivores (n = 28). Perceived benefits of these bonds to the respondents included both operational (animal easier to handle, easier to administer treatments to) and affective (sense of well‐being, enjoyment at being with the animal). Identifying benefits to the animals was more difficult. Most respondents identified similar benefits for their animals as for themselves, i.e. operational (animal responded more calmly, appeared less stressed) and affective (animal appeared to enjoy contact with respondent, seemed more content). This suggests that bonding between zoo professionals and their animals could have profound consequences for the management and welfare of the animals, not to mention the job satisfaction of the people involved. Zoo Biol 31:13;–26, 2012. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Children’s Beliefs about Animal Minds (Child-BAM): Associations with Positive and Negative Child–Animal Interactions

Children and animals can have a great impact on each other’s lives, yet little is known about the underpinnings of these relationships. Children’s interactions with animals may be influenced by their belief in animal minds, that animals are sentient and experience thoughts and feelings. This study introduces a newly developed measure of children’s beliefs about animal minds (Child-BAM) and investigates associations between it and factors relating to positive and negative interactions with animals. Using a questionnaire-based survey of over 1,000 6- to 13-year-olds in the UK, the results show that Child-BAM was associated with higher attachment to pets (p < 0.001), compassion (p < 0.001), humane (p < 0.001) and caring behavior (p < 0.001) toward animals, emotional attachment to animals (p = 0.003), and positive attitudes toward animals (p < 0.001). Child-BAM was also associated with less acceptance of intentional animal cruelty (p = 0.001), unintentional animal cruelty (p = 0.007), and animal neglect (p = 0.01). There was a significant difference in Child-BAM between children with pets (p = 0.013), children who had a pet of their own (p = 0.016), and age group (p < 0.001). This study enhances our understanding of the psychological underpinnings of child–animal relationships and highlights the implications for animal welfare education and for preventing childhood animal cruelty.     

Companion Rabbit and Companion Bird Management Practices Among a Representative Sample of Guardians in Victoria,Australia

Although companion animal management practices used by caregivers can influence the welfare of the companion animals, there is little existing information about the ways in which people attempt to meet their companion animals’ needs. A representative sample of rabbit guardians (n = 93, representing 63,000 people) and bird guardians (n = 203, representing 157,000 people) in Victoria, Australia, completed an online survey. Items were related to the environmental, diet/exercise, behavioral, social, and health management practices used by guardians. Guardians sometimes meet their companion animals’ welfare needs, but they do not always engage in best practices. Most (79%) bird guardians reported that they interacted with their birds daily, but only 68% of rabbit guardians did the same. Likewise, 32% of rabbit guardians and 55% of bird guardians never had their companion animals vaccinated. These results may be used for educational campaigns for improving companion animal welfare.     

Noninvasive assessment of adrenal activity associated with husbandry and behavioral factors in the North American clouded leopard population

The North American clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) population is far from self‐sustaining. Breeding success is poor and behavioral problems (i.e., fur‐plucking, tail‐chewing, excessive hiding or pacing, and intersexual aggression that results in mate killing) are common. This study was undertaken to investigate whether some of these problems may be indicators of chronic stress (as reflected by persistently elevated glucocorticoid levels) and whether they are associated with specific management factors. A fecal corticoid metabolite assay was validated to monitor adrenal activity in clouded leopards. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) challenges conducted in four clouded leopards established the biological relevance of the assay system. Fecal corticoid concentrations increased 14‐fold above baseline within 24 hours after ACTH administration. Adrenal activity then was monitored in 72 (36 males; 36 females) clouded leopards (65% of the North American Species Survival Plan population) during a 6‐week period and compared to husbandry and behavior data. There was a significant (P < 0.01) gender difference in fecal corticoid concentrations, with females producing higher concentrations than males. Multiple regression analyses revealed negative associations (P < 0.01) between enclosure height, number of hours keepers spent with each animal per week, and corticoid concentrations. A positive correlation (P < 0.001) was found between the number of keepers caring for an individual and corticoid concentrations. Higher fecal corticoid concentrations (P ≤ 0.05) were measured in clouded leopards kept on public display or near potential predators compared to individuals maintained off exhibit or in the absence of predators. Individuals that performed self‐injuring behaviors also had elevated fecal corticoids (P < 0.01). Spearman‐rank correlation analysis of keeper ratings and hormone data revealed positive associations (P ≤ 0.05) between some behaviors (pace, sleep, hide, and fearful/tense) and fecal corticoid concentrations. Overall these results indicate that noninvasive fecal corticoid monitoring has enormous potential for investigating how management and behavioral problems are related to animal well‐being. If conducted under carefully controlled experimental paradigms, this technique could allow researchers and managers to identify problem areas of captive management for clouded leopards (e.g., enclosure height, keeper time) and evaluate the efficacy of strategies designed to promote animal welfare and increased reproductive success. Zoo Biol 21:77–98, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Zoo Animal Welfare: The Human Dimension

ABSTRACT

Standards and policies intended to safeguard nonhuman animal welfare, whether in zoos, farms, or laboratories, have tended to emphasize features of the physical environment. However, research has now made it clear that very different welfare outcomes are commonly seen in facilities using similar environments or conforming to the same animal welfare requirements. This wide variation is almost certainly due, at least in part, to the important effects of the actions of animal care staff on animal welfare. Drawing mostly on the farm animal literature, we propose that this “human dimension” of animal welfare involves seven components: (1) positive human–animal interaction, (2) consistency and familiarity of keepers, (3) treating animals as individuals and taking account of their personalities, (4) the attitudes and personalities of keepers, (5) the keepers’ knowledge and experience, (6) the keepers’ own well-being, and (7) the influence of facility design on how keepers and others interact with the animals. We suggest that attention to these human factors provides major scope for improving the welfare of animals in zoos.     

Testing the Roles of Intergroup Anxiety and Inclusion of Animals in the Self as Mechanisms that Underpin the “Pets as Ambassadors” Effect

It has been suggested that pets provide the opportunity for humans to develop more positive attitudes and relationships toward a wider range of animal types—including toward non-pet animals—this is called the “pets as ambassadors” hypothesis. In this study, we build both on research conducted on human–animal relations and in social psychology to investigate the hypothesis, as well as two likely mechanisms involved in this effect: inter- group anxiety (toward animals) and inclusion of animals in the self. An online questionnaire was completed by 238 Canadian participants (M = 28.6 years old, SD = 8.53; 102 women). Using structural equation modeling (SEM), we tested a model whereby contact with pets predicted greater inclusion of ani- mals in the self and lower intergroup anxiety toward animals in general. In turn, these two psychological processes predicted more positive attitudes toward a broad range of animal types (e.g., wild/pest animals, animals used for human purposes) and animals in general. Finally, these positive attitudes toward animals predicted more pro-social behavioral intentions toward animals. The hypothesized model showed a good fit. Bootstrapping analyses further con- firmed the mediating roles of inclusion of animals in the self and intergroup anxiety toward animals in the associations between contact with pets and attitudes toward animals in general. The hypothesized model also presented a more satisfactory fit compared with an alternative model. Altogether, these findings underline the importance of contact with pets in fostering more positive human–animal relations and promoting animal welfare. These results also support the applicability of social psychological theories and principles in the realm of human–animal relations.     

Human–Ape Interactions in a Zoo Setting: Gorillas and Orangutans Modify Their Behavior Depending upon Human Familiarity

Understanding how human presence influences animal behavior, specifically the behavior of nonhuman primates, has important implications for methodology in cognitive and behavioral studies, for our understanding of human–animal relationships and for animal welfare in captive settings. Conducted in the San Diego Zoo, this study partially replicates an existing study on human–animal relationships, which focused on familiarity effects on the human-directed behavior of great apes residing in the Toronto Zoo. Such a replication in a new location and with different individuals is necessary to expand sample size and to better understand how ontogeny and living environment influence human-directed ape behavior. All-occurrence sampling of human-directed behavior was used to gather data on two gorilla groups and one orangutan group, all housed at the San Diego Zoo. The aim was to compare ape-initiated behaviors toward zoo staff with apeinitiated visitor-directed behavior, in accordance with predictions of the Human–Animal Relationship (HAR) model. Overall, human-directed behaviors were more frequent toward visitors than toward staff, mainly caused by increased visitor-directed visual behavior, specifically brief glances. Given that visual monitoring has been seen as fearful behavior, potentially related to predator monitoring, this would confirm the expectation that lack of familiarity will lead to increased visual vigilance. However, the visitor-directed visual behaviors may not be antagonistic or fearful. Considering the specific behaviors and exhibit designs, curiosity may be an equally likely explanation in this context. Aiming to also understand whether these groups exhibited species differences in human-directed behavior, it was found that orangutans engaged in more affiliative behavior overall than gorillas. Comparing our results with the previous study, we conclude that while effects of familiarity are present, those effects are modulated by both individual ontogeny and exhibit design. While the HAR model is partially supported, additional factors may need to be included to fully interpret the observed behavior. Additional research is needed to further understand the effects of species, sex, and ontogeny on the predictions of the HAR model.     

Visitors' perceptions of zoo‐housed lesser anteater (Tamandua tetradactyla) welfare: Observation plays a larger role than a brief informative talk

There is a growing ethical concern in modern society about animals' quality of life. We hypothesize that zoo visitors' perception of zoo animal welfare, particularly in the case of lesser anteaters, changes positively after listening to scientific information. Visitors observing active lesser anteaters in their enclosures at Córdoba Zoo (Argentina) were asked to respond to a questionnaire about animal welfare. The treatment group (T) answered the questionnaire after listening to a brief informative talk based on local scientific studies on lesser anteaters. The control group (C) answered the questionnaire without hearing the informative talk. Visitors (87.2%) considered biological, sanitary, and sociocultural aspects to be necessary conditions for optimum wild zoo‐housed animal welfare. The majority of visitors considered that natural surroundings provide the highest level of welfare for wild animals. Visitors in the T group ranked the zoo as providing a higher level of animal welfare than those in group C. In reference to management measurements, the T group agreed on the positive effect of the application of environmental enrichment (Likert Medians: C = 4 and T = 5; p = .0443). On the basis of their perception, most visitors in both groups stated that the lesser anteaters at Córdoba Zoo appeared to be in a good state of welfare. We interpret this as meaning that, what these Córdoba zoo visitors personally perceived while observing the lesser anteaters carried greater weight than what they learned from the informative talk, though the talk did slightly affect their opinion.     

Attitudes of Dairy Farmers toward Cow Welfare in Relation to Housing,Management and Productivity

ABSTRACT

The quality of stockmanship contributes to the human–animal relationship, animal welfare and productivity. Attitudes can affect the way farmers treat their animals, the environment they provide the animals with, and even their own job satisfaction through the feedback received from the animals. Farmers' perceptions of animals have also been shown to have an impact on productivity. We investigated 161 Finnish dairy farmers' attitudes toward improving animal welfare through an attitude questionnaire that used the Theory of Planned Behavior as a theoretical framework. The theory states that personal attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, together shape an individual's behavioral intentions and behaviors. To study the relationship between attitudes, animal welfare, and milk production, we used environment-based animal welfare indicator data consisting of categorized housing and management parameters, and mean milk production data. Non-parametric partial correlation analyses and regression analyses revealed that perceiving the measures to improve animal welfare to be important and easy were positively, although weakly, related to higher animal welfare standards/indicators, while no connection with production was established. Contrary to our expectations, sources of subjective norms, such as an agricultural adviser, were mostly negatively linked with animal welfare indicators and even with production. The farmers considered taking care of their own well-being as the most important way of improving animal welfare, and intending to do so was weakly but positively linked with animal welfare indicators. Any causal relationships, however, cannot be derived from the data.     

Impact of Zoo Visitors on the Fecal Cortisol Levels and Behavior of an Endangered Species: Indian Blackbuck (Antelope cervicapra L.)

This study investigated behavioral activities (resting, moving, aggressive, social, and reproductive behavior) and fecal cortisol levels in 8 individually identified adult male blackbucks during periods of varying levels of zoo visitors (zero, low, high, and extremely high zoo visitor density). This study also elucidated whether zoo visitor density could disturb nonhuman animal welfare. This study analyzed fecal cortisol from the samples of blackbuck by radioimmunoassay and found significant differences (p < .05) for time the animals devoted to moving, resting, aggressive, reproductive, and social behavior on days with high and extremely high levels of zoo visitors. The ANOVA with Duncan's Multiple Range Test test showed that the fecal cortisol concentration was higher (p < .05) during the extremely high (137.30 ± 5.88 ng/g dry feces) and high (113.51 ± 3.70 ng/g dry feces) levels of zoo visitor density. The results of the study suggest that zoo visitor density affected behavior and adrenocortical secretion in Indian Blackbuck, and this may indicate an animal welfare problem.     

What Is the Future for Zoos and Aquariums?

ABSTRACT

Animal welfare concerns have plagued the professional zoo and aquarium field for decades. Societal differences remain concerning the well-being of animals, but it appears a shift is emerging. Scientific studies of animal welfare have dramatically increased, establishing that many previous concerns were not misguided public empathy or anthropomorphism. As a result, both zoo and aquarium animal welfare policy and science are now at the center of attention within the world’s professional zoos and aquariums. It is now possible to view a future that embraces the well-being of individual captive exotic animals, as well as that of their species, and one in which professional zoos and aquariums are dedicated equally to advancing both. Though the ethics of keeping exotic animals and animals from the wild in captivity are still a contentious subject both outside and even within the profession, this study argues. We argue that this path forward will substantially improve most zoo and aquarium animals' welfare and could significantly reduce societal concerns. If animal welfare science and policy are strongly rooted in compassion and embedded in robust accreditation systems, the basic zoo/aquarium paradigm will move toward a more thoughtful approach to the interface between visitors and animals. It starts with a fundamental commitment to the welfare of individual animals.     

Animal Welfare Knowledge,Attitudes, and Practices of Stockpersons in Kenya

The stockpersons handling the transportation of animals between farms and slaughterhouses are rarely assessed for their animal welfare knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP). Thus, this investigation presents a unique opportunity to study these interactions. Herein, a cross-sectional survey was carried out among 266 stockpersons in 10 Kenyan livestock markets to determine their animal welfare KAP. The survey questionnaire was based on Kenya’s Regulations for Animal Transport (Act No: CAP. 360-L.N. 119/1984). Mean percentage scores for knowledge, attitudes, and practices were 78.0 ± 14.1, 75.6 ± 16.0, and 64.5 ± 17.6, respectively. From the responses to statements related to animal husbandry, practices of the housing of unfamiliar groups of animals, cooperation with other stakeholders, and stress caused to animals during handling, it was found that stockpersons’ animal welfare KAP was inadequate. Women aged > 50 years or having more than 10 years of experience had significantly higher levels of animal welfare KAP (p < 0.05). In conclusion, although Kenyan stockpersons may score adequately on the parameters of animal welfare knowledge and attitudes, their followed practices are poor, which may possibly be influenced by gender, age, or level of experience.