Environmental influences on stereotypy and the activity budget of Indian leopards (Panthera pardus) in four zoos in Southern India

To eliminate abnormal behaviors in leopards (Panthera pardus), such as stereotypic pacing, by utilizing environmental enrichment techniques, a proper understanding of their behavior in captive environments is required. Hence there is a need for animal welfare studies in Indian zoos. The activity budgets of 16 leopards were recorded across four southern Indian zoos: Thiruvananthapuram Zoo, Arignar Anna Zoological Park, Shri Chamarajendra Zoological Gardens, and the Guindy Children's Park. Of the 16 study animals, 14 were studied on‐exhibit on zoo holidays as well as on days with visitors present, and all 16 individuals were studied off‐exhibit on other days with visitors present. The 11 behaviors recorded were categorized into active, resting, and stereotypic behaviors. Leopards exhibited higher levels of activity in the on‐exhibit enclosures on days with no visitors. Feeding time influenced the behavioral repertoire of all 14 leopards studied on‐exhibit. Lower proportions of resting were exhibited during the hours before feeding. The proportion of active behaviors differed significantly across zoos. Stereotypic pacing levels were not influenced by the presence of visitors or by feeding time, but was significantly influenced by enclosure features. Higher levels of stereotypic pacing were exhibited in off‐exhibit than on‐exhibit enclosures. Our study shows that the behavior of captive leopards is influenced by enclosure type, feeding regime, and the presence of visitors. Zoo Biol 21:585–595, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Behavior of Cape fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus) in relation to temporal variation in predation risk by white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) around a seal rookery in False Bay,South Africa

The marked differences in predation risk posed by white sharks (Carcarodon carcarias) at island rookeries of Cape fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus) offer a quasi‐experimental design within a natural system for exploring how prey adjust their behavior in response to temporal variation in predation risk. Here we compare movement of juvenile and adult Cape fur seals at a high risk (Seal Island) and low risk (Egg Island) rookery. We further compare juveniles and adults at Seal Island in low and high risk seasons and at low and high risk times of day within those seasons. Adult fur seals at Seal Island avoided traversing the zone of high white shark predation risk during the high risk period (0700–0959) in the season of high risk (winter), but not during the low risk season (summer). By contrast, adult fur seals at Egg Island showed no temporal discretion in either season. Unlike juvenile fur seals at Egg Island, juveniles at Seal Island adjusted their temporal movement patterns to more closely mimic adult seal movement patterns. This suggests that exposure to predators is the primary driver of temporal adjustments to movement by prey species commuting from a central place.     

Rare piebald and partially leucistic Antarctic fur seals, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arctocephalus gazella</Emphasis>, at Cape Shirreff,Livingston Island,Antarctica

We document five cases of unusual colouration in Antarctic fur seals, Arctocephalus gazella, at Cape Shirreff, Livingston Island, from 1991–1992 to 2005–2006 austral summer seasons. This is the first time that these colour patterns have been reported for this species. These included four rare light coloured animals and one piebald individual. The incidence of this atypical colouring was low and the lack of resightings in previous and subsequent seasons suggests that these morphs are not common in Antarctic fur seals. Although the causes of these atypical light colour patterns are uncertain the subject is interesting for study and more observations on these atypical colourations are required for a proper assessment of the ecological and physiological implications of this condition in otariids can be conducted in the future.     

Nocturnal behavior in a group of female African elephants

The nocturnal behavior of a stable group of female, African elephants (Loxodonta africana africana) was studied to: (1) examine their behavior as a function of hour of night; (2) qualitatively compare the elephants' activity budgets to those reported in a previous study; and (3) document the presence of aggressive and stereotypic behaviors that might necessitate a change in their management. The elephants were systematically observed at least five times per week for 10 weeks between 17:00 and 08:00. Instantaneous focal samples of behavior, location, and proximity were taken every minute on a rotating basis, and all observed occurrences of social behavior were recorded. The hour of night affected elephant activity: significant relationships were found between hour of night and percent of time they spent feeding, lying, and standing. The overall activity budgets of the elephants were similar to the activity budgets reported in a previous study, although differences were evident in lying, stereotypic, and social behaviors. These differences might be a function of age. Affiliative behaviors accounted for 57% of the elephants' social behaviors, and agonistic behaviors among the elephants occurred infrequently and caused no injuries. Additionally, the elephants used all areas to which they had access. These findings provide compelling evidence that unrestricted social access during the night is the appropriate management strategy for these elephants. The results from the present study also highlight the importance of replicating existing studies and using multiple behavioral measures to make decisions regarding the welfare and management of stable groups of captive elephants. Zoo Biol 25:173–186, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

An Empirical Case Study Examining Effectiveness of Environmental Enrichment in Two Captive Australian Sea Lions (Neophoca cinerea)

This case study examined the effect of environmental enrichment on the activity budgets of a male and female Australian Sea Lion (Neophoca cinerea) housed together at Adelaide Zoo. Using non-food-related (intrinsic) and food-related (extrinsic) enrichment objects, the study conducted an ABABA (withdrawal) experimental design over a 30-day period (180 hr). The study expected extrinsically reinforcing objects to be more effective than intrinsically reinforcing objects in reducing pattern swimming. The male sea lion spent more than 45% of scans engaged in pattern swimming during the initial baseline, which was reduced by at least 25% when enrichment items were present. However, there was no evidence of stereotypic behavior in the female sea lion, indicating that individual differences may exist. When enrichment was present, the study observed more active behaviors in both nonhuman animals. They spent more time interacting with the non-food-related objects overall. Therefore, introducing simple enrichment devices offers a cheap, practical, and effective method of adding complexity to the environment, which is likely to benefit the animals' welfare and enhance the zoo-visitor experience.     

Intact carcasses as enrichment for large felids: Effects on on‐ and off‐exhibit behaviors

Reducing stereotypic behaviors in captive animals is a goal for zoological institutions worldwide, and environmental enrichment is one tool commonly used to meet that end. Behavioral needs associated with feeding, however, are often neglected in large carnivores. To address these needs, I tested the effects of calf carcasses as enrichment for large felids. Over 14 weeks, I provided nine animals with up to seven intact carcasses. The cats were housed at Toledo Zoo, Potawatomi Zoo, and Binder Park Zoo. Animals were observed off and on exhibit for changes in feeding, natural, stereotypic, active, and inactive behaviors. I compared treatment behaviors with behaviors observed during a baseline period in which the animals were fed traditional processed diets. For these nine cats, carcass provision decreased off‐exhibit stereotypic behaviors but had little impact on on‐exhibit behaviors. Zoo Biol 21:37–47, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Behavioral effects of environmental enrichment on harbor seals (Phoca vitulina concolor) and gray seals (Halichoerus grypus)

Zoos and aquariums have been incorporating environmental enrichment into their animal care programs for the past 30 years to increase mental stimulation and promote natural behaviors. However, most attempts to document the effects of enrichment on animal behavior have focused on terrestrial mammals. Staff at the National Aquarium in Baltimore conducted an investigation of the behavioral effects of enrichment on the seven harbor seals and two gray seals housed in the aquarium's outdoor seal exhibit. We expected that enrichment would change the amount of time the animals spent engaged in specific behaviors. The behaviors recorded were: resting in water, resting hauled out, maintenance, breeding display, breeding behavior, aggression, pattern swimming, random swimming, exploration, and out of sight. Activity levels (random swimming and exploration) were expected to increase, while stereotypic behaviors (pattern swimming) were expected to decrease. The frequency and duration of behaviors were documented for 90 hr in both the control phase (without enrichment) and the experimental phase (with enrichment). Statistically significant differences (P<0.05) in the time spent in pattern swimming, random swimming, exploration, and out of sight were observed between the two phases. With enrichment, pattern swimming and out of sight decreased, while random swimming and exploration behavior increased. These findings demonstrate that enrichment can promote behaviors (random swimming and exploration) that are likely to be normal for phocids in the wild, and that may contribute to the behavioral complexity of these seals in captivity. Zoo Biol 21:375–387, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Improving the Welfare of a Zoo-Housed Male Drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus poensis) Aggressive Toward Visitors

Improving the welfare of nonhuman animals in captivity and maintaining behavioral competence for future conservation purposes is of the highest priority for zoos. The behavior of an aggressive male drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus poensis) was assessed in Barcelona Zoo. The 2-year study presented in this article examined the effects of introducing changes in the exhibit of the drill to improve his welfare by analyzing scan behaviors. First, a partial visual barrier was applied and proved to be insufficient to decrease the long-term stress indicators assessed. Next, a feeding enrichment program was implemented. The results supported the hypothesis that feeding and explorative activities would increase, whereas apathetic and stereotypic behaviors would decrease. However, visitor-directed aggression did not vary, indicating that more profound structural modifications were needed to reduce the negative impact of the agonistic interactions between the drill and the public. The study emphasized the usefulness of environmental enrichment evaluations in assessing captive animal welfare.     

Activity budgets and the relationship between feeding and stereotypic behaviors in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in a Zoo

Activity budgets were studied in eight Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at Chester Zoo (UK) for 35 days, between January and November 1999. Recordings were made between 10:00 and 16:00 hr (with most behavior frequencies calculated between 10:00 and 14:00 hr). The elephants exhibited variation in activity depending on their age, sex, the time of day and the time of year. Only the five adult cows exhibited stereotypic behavior, with frequencies ranging from 3.9 to 29.4% of all observations. These elephants exhibited individual, diurnal and seasonal variation in stereotypic behavior. This has implications for studies that use short sampling periods and may make comparisons of data collected at different times of the day or year invalid. The six adult elephants spent 27.4–41.4% of the time feeding (between 10:00 and 14:00 hr), 22.9–42.0% standing still, 6.1–19.2% walking and 3.9–9.6% dusting. The hypothesis that the frequency of stereotypic behavior in adult cow elephants was negatively correlated with the frequency of feeding behavior was tested and was found to be true. Stereotypic behavior increased in frequency toward the end of the day—while waiting to return to the elephant house for food—and elephants spent more time stereotyping during the winter months than during the summer months. Elephants were inactive (i.e. exhibited behaviors other than locomotion) for between 70.1 and 93.9% of the time. Creating more opportunities for elephants to exhibit foraging behavior and the introduction of greater unpredictability into management regimes, especially feeding times, may reduce the frequency of stereotypic behavior and increase general activity levels. Zoo Biol 28:79–97, 2009. © 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Tailored Enrichment Strategies and Stereotypic Behavior in Captive Individually Housed Macaques (Macaca spp.)

The welfare of nonhuman animals in captivity is widely dependent on the natural psychological, physical, and behavioral needs of the animals and how adequately these needs are met. Inability to engage in natural behaviors can lead to chronic stress and expression of stereotypic behavior. The majority of research on decreasing stereotypic behavior in captivity addresses problems at the group level and does not account for individual variability in each animal's needs, history, and preferences. This study combined physiological and behavioral measures of well being to comprehensively assess the unique needs of individually housed captive macaques (Macaca spp.) with the aim of developing tailored welfare strategies. Behavioral and hormonal data were collected under 2 conditions: baseline and individualized enrichment. The results showed a significant decrease in stereotypic behavior under the enrichment condition. Additionally, 7 out of 9 individuals showed a decrease in fecal glucocorticoid (stress hormone) levels, indicating a reduction in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity. Addressing welfare on an individual, rather than group, level allows for a better overall characterization of well being and maximizes the probability of improving the welfare of each animal.     

The efficacy of culling seals seen preying on seabirds as a means of reducing seabird mortality

In the 2006/2007 breeding season of Cape gannets Morus capensis at Malgas Island, the removal of 61 Cape fur seals Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus that preyed on gannet fledglings when they left to sea significantly reduced the mortality rate of these fledglings. However, because seals learned to avoid the boat used for their removal, it was not possible to remove all the seals that killed gannet fledglings and some mortality continued. The seals inflicting the mortality were all sub-adult males, with an average age of <5 years. Sustained removal of these animals may reduce this feeding behaviour, which is at present having an adverse impact on several threatened seabirds in the Benguela ecosystem.     

Visitor Behaviors and Perceptions of Jaguar Activities

ABSTRACT

Zoo animals serve an important function in helping educate the public about their conservation needs. Despite this important function, little is understood about how visitors perceive different zoo exhibits and the animals that reside within them. In the present study, the behaviors displayed by two jaguars located at the Woodland Park Zoo were correlated with visitor behaviors and perceptions. Overall, visitors perceived their enjoyment to be lower when a jaguar was out of sight and rated the behavioral welfare of the jaguar to be lower when it was engaged in stereotypic behaviors. In addition, visitors who described a jaguar's behavior as stereotypic were significantly more likely to give lower ratings than those who perceived the jaguar to be active. It is suggested that by understanding how visitors perceive exhibited animals, zoos can address these perceptions in order to create more positive experiences for their visitors.     

Foraging-Based Enrichment Promotes More Varied Behaviour in Captive Australian Fur Seals (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus)

During wild foraging, Australian fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus) encounter many different types of prey in a wide range of scenarios, yet in captive environments they are typically provided with a narrower range of opportunities to display their full repertoire of behaviours. This study aimed to quantitatively explore the effect of foraging-based enrichment on the behaviour and activity patterns displayed by two captive Australian fur seals at Melbourne Zoo, Australia. Food was presented as a scatter in open water, in a free-floating ball device, or in a static box device, with each treatment separated by control trials with no enrichment. Both subjects spent more time interacting with the ball and static box devices than the scatter feed. The total time spent pattern swimming was reduced in the enrichment treatments compared to the controls, while the time spent performing random swimming behaviours increased. There was also a significant increase in the total number of bouts of behaviour performed in all three enrichment treatments compared to controls. Each enrichment method also promoted a different suit of foraging behaviours. Hence, rather than choosing one method, the most effective way to increase the diversity of foraging behaviours, while also increasing variation in general activity patterns, is to provide seals with a wide range of foraging scenarios where food is encountered in different ways.     

Distressed Animal Behaviors and Some Recommendations for Improvements at the Kuala Lumpur Zoo,Malaysia

The artificial living conditions of captive animals present numerous challenges for animal caretakers. In this study I explored abnormal behaviors in certain caged animals at the Kuala Lumpur Zoo. Findings obtained from observations of animals and interviews of the zoo staff are followed by recommendations: including the development of standards and manuals, licensing of zoos and animals, and increased budgets from governments or alternative sources. Such interventions should bring considerable improvements in animal welfare at the zoos in the region.     

Distressed animal behaviors and some recommendations for improvements at the Kuala Lumpur Zoo, Malaysia

The artificial living conditions of captive animals present numerous challenges for animal caretakers. In this study I explored abnormal behaviors in certain caged animals at the Kuala Lumpur Zoo. Findings obtained from observations of animals and interviews of the zoo staff are followed by recommendations: including the development of standards and manuals, licensing of zoos and animals, and increased budgets from governments or alternative sources. Such interventions should bring considerable improvements in animal welfare at the zoos in the region.     

Vagrant Subantarctic fur seal at Cape Shirreff,Livingston Island,Antarctica

A vagrant adult male Subantarctic fur seal Arctocephalus tropicalis was observed among Antarctic fur seals A. gazella at Cape Shirreff, Livingston Island, Antarctica, which is located to ~4,190 and ~5,939 km from the nearest breeding colonies of Subantarctic fur seals. Although the colony of origin of this animal and the reason for its movement outside its distribution range are unknown, this sighting shows the high dispersal capacity of this species and provides an insight into possible changes in its distribution. Although this vagrant was not observed with females Antarctic fur seal, news sightings in the future could result in viable hybrid, and introgressive hybridization could represent a threat for Cape Shirreff population recovery, if still the population way to go to recover to presailing levels.     

Activity‐specific metabolic rates for diving,transiting, and resting at sea can be estimated from time–activity budgets in free‐ranging marine mammals

Time and energy are the two most important currencies in animal bioenergetics. How much time animals spend engaged in different activities with specific energetic costs ultimately defines their likelihood of surviving and successfully reproducing. However, it is extremely difficult to determine the energetic costs of independent activities for free‐ranging animals. In this study, we developed a new method to calculate activity‐specific metabolic rates, and applied it to female fur seals. We attached biologgers (that recorded GPS locations, depth profiles, and triaxial acceleration) to 12 northern (Callorhinus ursinus) and 13 Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella), and used a hierarchical decision tree algorithm to determine time allocation between diving, transiting, resting, and performing slow movements at the surface (grooming, etc.). We concomitantly measured the total energy expenditure using the doubly‐labelled water method. We used a general least‐square model to establish the relationship between time–activity budgets and the total energy spent by each individual during their foraging trip to predict activity‐specific metabolic rates. Results show that both species allocated similar time to diving (~29%), transiting to and from their foraging grounds (~26–30%), and resting (~8–11%). However, Antarctic fur seals spent significantly more time grooming and moving slowly at the surface than northern fur seals (36% vs. 29%). Diving was the most expensive activity (~30 MJ/day if done non‐stop for 24 hr), followed by transiting at the surface (~21 MJ/day). Interestingly, metabolic rates were similar between species while on land or while slowly moving at the surface (~13 MJ/day). Overall, the average field metabolic rate was ~20 MJ/day (for all activities combined). The method we developed to calculate activity‐specific metabolic rates can be applied to terrestrial and marine species to determine the energetic costs of daily activities, as well as to predict the energetic consequences for animals forced to change their time allocations in response to environmental shifts.     

To hunt or not to hunt? A feeding enrichment experiment with captive large felids

It is often difficult to promote the successful performance of feeding behaviors in zoos, especially for carnivores. Feeding enrichment provides these opportunities and often improves behavioral indications of an animal's well‐being and the experience of the zoo visitor. The effectiveness of two different feeding enrichment techniques was evaluated on five subjects in two species of felids: African lions and Sumatran tigers. The activity budgets of each cat were compared before, during, and after enrichment, focusing on activity levels, frequency and variety of feeding behaviors, and occurrence of stereotypic behaviors. The presentation of live fish increased the variety and frequency of feeding behaviors, while presentation of horse leg bones increased the frequency of these behaviors. Fish reduced the tigers' stereotypic behavior from 60% of scans to 30% of scans on the day of presentation, and this change was maintained for 2 days following enrichment. Bone presentation also reduced stereotypic behavior and increased nonstereotypic activity in both species. Both of these techniques appear to have sustained effects on behavior lasting at least 2 days after presentation, which may indicate their ability to alter the animals' underlying activity patterns. Zoo Biol 22:189–198, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Species-specific cell-matrix interactions are essential for differentiation of alveoli like structures and milk gene expression in primary mammary cells of the Cape fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus).

Few models are in place for analysis of extreme lactation patterns such as that of the fur seals which are capable of extended down regulation of milk production in the absence of involution. During a 10-12 month lactation period, female fur seals suckle pups on shore for 2-3 days, and then undertake long foraging trips at sea for up to 28 days, resulting in the longest intersuckling bouts recorded. During this time the mammary gland down regulates milk production. We have induced Cape fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus) mammary cells in vitro to form mammospheres up to 900 microm in diameter, larger than any of their mammalian counterparts. Mammosphere lumens were shown to form via apoptosis and cells comprising the cellular boundary stained vimentin positive. The Cape fur seal GAPDH gene was cloned and used in RT-PCR as a normalization tool to examine comparative expression of milk protein genes (alphaS2-casein, beta-lactoglobulin and lysozyme C) which were prolactin responsive. Cape fur seal mammary cells were found to be unique; they did not require Matrigel for rapid mammosphere formation and instead deposited their own matrix within 2 days of culture. When grown on Matrigel, cells exhibited branching/stellate morphogenesis highlighting the species-specific nature of cell-matrix interactions during morphological differentiation. Matrix produced in vitro by cells did not support formation of human breast cancer cell line, PMC42 mammospheres. This novel model system will help define the molecular pathways controlling the regulation of milk protein expression and species specific requirements of the extracellular matrix in the cape fur seal.     

A work‐for‐food enrichment program increases exploration and decreases stereotypies in four species of bears

Zoo‐housed bears are prone to exhibiting stereotypic behaviors, generally considered indicators of negative welfare. We explored the effects of a variable‐time feeding enrichment schedule on behavioral indicators of welfare in four bear species at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo. We distributed the diets of eight bears in one of five enrichment items, for two consecutive days each, and monitored behavior throughout the day. In Experiment 1, we compared variable‐time to fixed‐time presentation of enrichment over two, 10‐day periods. Overall, bears performed more exploratory behavior when enriched (p < 0.0001). Furthermore, variable‐time enrichment was associated with a greater increase in exploratory behavior than fixed‐time enrichment when compared to baseline (p < 0.001). Both fixed‐time (p_unadjusted <0.05, p_adjusted = 0.07) and variable‐schedule (p_unadjusted <0.05, p_adjusted = 0.09) enrichment were also associated with similar decreases in abnormal behavior compared to baseline. For Experiment 2, we tested habituation to enrichment over 30 days using multiple items and a semi‐variable presentation schedule. Again during the enrichment period, bears exhibited increased exploratory behavior (p < 0.0001) and decreased abnormal behaviors compared to baseline (p_unadjusted = 0.05, p_adjusted = 0.09). We observed no habituation during the 30‐day sustained enrichment period for these behaviors. Collectively, these results suggest that daily, variable‐schedule feeding enrichment, with intermittent presentation of unique enrichment items, increases behavioral indicators of positive welfare and decreases behavioral indicators of negative welfare.