Foraging Behavior Patterns of Sheep and Horses Under a Mixed Species Grazing System

The research objective was to assess the behavior patterns of the Polish Konik horse breed and the Uhruska variety of the Polish Lowland Sheep breed under a mixed-grazing system, and their relationship with climatic factors. The observation included 4 adult horses, 27 ewes with lambs and 10 primiparous ewes. The behavior of the animals and the weather conditions were recorded at 60-min intervals. Horses and sheep displayed similarities in both species-specific behavioral patterns and timing of grazing activity, and the duration of foraging sessions was mostly influenced by time of day, lower temperature and relative humidity. In addition, the two species showed more interest in the watering place in the afternoon, and drinking frequency was mainly dependent on air temperature. The animals that pastured together gradually began to mix, but at first, they remained within their species group. Both animal species can be used for environmental protection and landscape conservation making rational use of pastures within protected areas.     

Physiological and behavioral responses of horses during police training

Mounted police horses have to cope with challenging, unpredictable situations when on duty and it is essential to gain insight into how these horses handle stress to warrant their welfare. The aim of the study was to evaluate physiological and behavioral responses of 12 (six experienced and six inexperienced) police horses during police training. Horses were evaluated during four test settings at three time points over a 7-week period: outdoor track test, street track test, indoor arena test and smoke machine test. Heart rate (HR; beats/min), HR variability (HRV; root means square of successive differences; ms), behavior score (BS; scores 0 to 5) and standard police performance score (PPS; scores 1 to 0) were obtained per test. All data were statistically evaluated using a linear mixed model (Akaike's Information criterium; t > 2.00) or logistic regression (P < 0.05). HR of horses was increased at indoor arena test (98 ± 26) and smoke machine test (107 ± 25) compared with outdoor track (80 ± 12, t = 2.83 and t = 3.91, respectively) and street track tests (81 ± 14, t = 2.48 and t = 3.52, respectively). HRV of horses at the indoor arena test (42.4 ± 50.2) was significantly lower compared with street track test (85.7 ± 94.3 and t = 2.78). BS did not show significant differences between tests and HR of horses was not always correlated with the observed moderate behavioral responses. HR, HRV, PPS and BS did not differ between repetition of tests and there were no significant differences in any of the four tests between experienced and inexperienced horses. No habituation occurred during the test weeks, and experience as a police horse does not seem to be a key factor in how these horses handle stress. All horses showed only modest behavioral responses, and HR may provide complimentary information for individual evaluation and welfare assessment of these horses. Overall, little evidence of stress was observed during these police training tests. As three of these tests (excluding the indoor arena test) reflect normal police work, it is suggested that this kind of police work is not significantly stressful for horses and will have no negative impact on the horse's welfare.     

横断山不同海拔地区大绒鼠面对高糖食物变化的生理和行为响应

野外小型哺乳动物通常会表现出生理和行为的变化以应对环境条件的季节性变化,如食物、温度、光照等.为了研究横断山不同地区大绒鼠(Eothenomys miletus)面对不同含糖量食物时的生理和行为适应策略,选取云南剑川和香格里拉地区大绒鼠各26只,喂高糖食物28 d后重喂标准食物28 d,实验共56 d.测定大绒鼠的体重...     

Equestrian Coaches' Understanding and Application of Learning Theory in Horse Training

ABSTRACT

To assess the knowledge of learning theory among accredited equestrian coaches in Australia, a 20-item questionnaire was distributed to all coaches registered with the National Coaches Accreditation Scheme in Australia (n = 830). Of the 206 respondents, 79.5% considered positive reinforcement to be “very useful,” yet only 2.8% correctly explained its use in horse training. When asked about the usefulness of negative reinforcement, 19.3% of coaches considered it “very useful,” with 11.9% correctly explaining its use. Punishment was rated “very useful” by 5.2% of respondents, although only eight coaches (5.4%) explained punishment correctly. Release of pressure was considered the most effective reward for horses among respondents (78.2%). These results indicate that many equestrian coaches lack a correct understanding of positive and negative reinforcement as they apply to horse training. Given that qualified coaches play a significant role in the dissemination of information on training practices, this highlights the need for improved education of equestrian coaches. Education to remedy this situation has the potential to enhance the welfare of horses through reduced behavioral conflict and improve training outcomes.     

Behavioral Responses of Bats to Operating Wind Turbines

Abstract Wind power is one of the fastest growing sectors of the energy industry. Recent studies have reported large numbers of migratory tree-roosting bats being killed at utility-scale wind power facilities, especially in the eastern United States. We used thermal infrared (TIR) cameras to assess the flight behavior of bats at wind turbines because this technology makes it possible to observe the nocturnal behavior of bats and birds independently of supplemental light sources. We conducted this study at the Mountaineer Wind Energy Center in Tucker County, West Virginia, USA, where hundreds of migratory tree bats have been found injured or dead beneath wind turbines. We recorded nightly 9-hour sessions of TIR video of operating turbines from which we assessed altitude, direction, and types of flight maneuvers of bats, birds, and insects. We observed bats actively foraging near operating turbines, rather than simply passing through turbine sites. Our results indicate that bats 1) approached both rotating and nonrotating blades, 2) followed or were trapped in blade-tip vortices, 3) investigated the various parts of the turbine with repeated fly-bys, and 4) were struck directly by rotating blades. Blade rotational speed was a significant negative predictor of collisions with turbine blades, suggesting that bats may be at higher risk of fatality on nights with low wind speeds.     

Behavioral Responses of Meloidogyne incognita to Small Temperature Changes

Small, rapid temperature changes were generated by incandescent radiation, and behavioral responses of Meloidogyne incognita juveniles were recorded with high time resolution by computer tracking. Temperature changes away from the preferred temperature resulted in decreases in the rate of movement and increases in the rate of change of direction, whether the changes were toward warmer or cooler temperatures. These behavioral changes lasted about 30 seconds. Temperature changes toward the preferred temperature caused the response rates to change in the opposite directions, and the behavioral changes persisted for several minutes. These results demonstrate that nematodes can respond to a purely temporal thermal stimulus in a manner consistent with efficient indirect orientation or klinokinesis. The rate of temperature change was estimated to be of the order of 10⁻⁴ C/second, suggesting that the nematodes detected a change of about 0.001 C.     

Behavioral Responses of North American Elk to Recreational Activity

ABSTRACT Off-road recreation on public lands in North America has increased dramatically in recent years. Wild ungulates are sensitive to human activities, but the effect of off-road recreation, both motorized and nonmotorized, is poorly understood. We measured responses of elk (Cervus elaphus) to recreational disturbance in northeast Oregon, USA, from April to October, 2003 and 2004. We subjected elk to 4 types of recreational disturbance: all-terrain vehicle (ATV) riding, mountain biking, hiking, and horseback riding. Motion sensors inside radiocollars worn by 13 female elk recorded resting, feeding, and travel activities at 5-minute intervals throughout disturbance and control periods. Elk fed and rested during control periods, with little time spent traveling. Travel time increased in response to all 4 disturbances and was highest in mornings. Elk travel time was highest during ATV exposure, followed by exposure to mountain biking, hiking, and horseback riding. Feeding time decreased during ATV exposure and resting decreased when we subjected elk to mountain biking and hiking disturbance in 2003. Our results demonstrated that activities of elk can be substantially affected by off-road recreation. Mitigating these effects may be appropriate where elk are a management priority. Balancing management of species like elk with off-road recreation will become increasingly important as off-road recreational uses continue to increase on public lands in North America.     

Behavioral Responses of Gorillas to Habituation in the Dzanga-Ndoki National Park,Central African Republic

We monitored the impact of habituation for tourism through changes in gorillas' behavior during the habituation process at Bai Hokou (Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, Central African Republic) from August 1996 to December 1999. From August 1998 onwards we focused on one gorilla group: the Munye. During the habituation process, it became increasingly easier to locate and to remain with the gorillas. Their initial reactions of aggression, fear and vocalization upon contact were replaced increasingly by ignoring us. Curiosity appeared to be an intermediate stage in the process. The way in which contacts with the Munye ended became more subdued over time. Regular daily contact is important in promoting habituation. Likewise, contacting gorillas while they are in a tree or in dense forest provides positive results compared to open habitat. Contacts within 10 m and contacts without forewarning the gorillas of observer presence, e.g., via tongue clacking, should be avoided. As of December 1999, habituation had progressed well; habituation of western gorillas is feasible. However, the gorillas experience negative effects during the habituation process, showing, for example, an increase in daily path length, and reactions of aggression, fear and vocalization upon contact. Impacts diminish over time. Given these and other potentially negative effects, the decision to begin habituation should not be taken lightly.     

Anti-Predator Behavioral Responses of Mosquito Pupae to Aerial Predation Risk

Aquatic insects have two potential sources of predation risk: aquatic predators and aerial predators. Our goal was to assess anti-predator responses of Culex pipiens to aerial predation. By simulating predator attacks, we assessed (a) the distance fled in relation to depth and group size, (b) the distribution of individuals at different depths, and (c) the duration of surfacing events to obtain air in scenarios with varying predation risk. Pupae located closer to the surface fled deeper into the water, and the number of conspecifics decreased the distance fled. When the risk of predation increased, more individuals were found deeper in the water column, and the interval between two consecutive surfacing events increased. Culex pipiens shows a trade-off between avoiding aerial predation and maintaining oxygen acquisition, which may be regulated by the need to conserve energy reserves.     

The Effects of Hypoxia on Three Sympatric Shark Species: Physiological and Behavioral Responses

Behavioral and physiological responses to hypoxia were examined in three sympatric species of sharks: bonnethead shark Sphyrna tiburo, blacknose shark, Carcharhinus acronotus, and Florida smoothhound shark, Mustelus norrisi, using closed system respirometry. Sharks were exposed to normoxic and three levels of hypoxic conditions. Under normoxic conditions (5.5–6.4mg l^–1), shark routine swimming speed averaged 25.5 and 31.0cm s^–1 for obligate ram-ventilating S. tiburo and C. acronotus respectively, and 25.0cm s^–1 for buccal-ventilating M. norrisi. Routine oxygen consumption averaged about 234.6 mg O₂kg^–1h^–1 for S. tiburo, 437.2mg O₂kg^–1h^–1 for C. acronotus, and 161.4mg O₂ kg^–1 h^–1 for M. norrisi. For ram-ventilating sharks, mouth gape averaged 1.0cm whereas M. norrisi gillbeats averaged 56.0 beats min^–1. Swimming speeds, mouth gape, and oxygen consumption rate of S. tiburo and C. acronotus increased to a maximum of 37–39cm s^–1, 2.5–3.0cm and 496 and 599mg O₂ kg^–1 h^–1 under hypoxic conditions (2.5–3.4mg l^–1), respectively. M. norrisi decreased swimming speeds to 16cm s^–1 and oxygen consumption rate remained similar. Results support the hypothesis that obligate ram-ventilating sharks respond to hypoxia by increasing swimming speed and mouth gape while buccal-ventilating smoothhound sharks reduce activity.     

Behavioral Responses of Adult Deathwatch Beetles,Xestobium rufovillosum de Geer (Coleoptera: Anobiidae), to Light and Dark

Video tracking equipment was used to quantify the behavior of adult deathwatch beetles, Xestobium rufovillosum in a light/dark choice chamber. Effects of insect age, sex, and mating status on this behavior were analysed. The behavior recorded included the initial direction of movement, the time taken to reach the light or dark zone, the time spent in each zone, the time spent moving in each zone and the distance moved in each zone. The results show that both male and female insects 1–12 days old prefer the light zone. Insects more than 12 days old demonstrate sexually differential photoresponsive behavior. Males show a preference for the light. Females show an increasing preference for the dark, mated females more so than unmated females. The implications of these differences in behavior are discussed in relation to control programmes.     

Effect of Work Experience and Position in the Plow Harness on Some Physiological Parameters of Horses Under Field Conditions

Six pairs of horses were studied during 6 consecutive days. One horse in each pair had working experience. The position of the 2 nonhuman animals in the plow harness was alternated each day. Some physical and physiological parameters were measured at different stages during each workday. A split-plot design with repeated measures was used with position in plow harness and work experience as factors. Work speed and force were similar in all pairs (p > .05). There was no effect of position in the plow harness on any of the variables evaluated (p > .05). Inexperienced animals had higher average respiratory rates (p < .01) and sweat scores (p < .05) than did experienced horses. For all variables, minimum values were observed at the beginning of the workday, after the 30-min break, and 30 min after the end of the workday. Increases in the parameters measured (p < .01) were detected after 1 hr of plowing, reaching maximum values at 2.5 hr of continuous work. Cortisol levels increased from 39.0 12.4 ng/ml at 9:00 a.m. (before work) to 84.0 20.8 ng/ml at the end of the workday. We concluded that position of the horse in the plow harness had no effect on the variables measured, whereas work experience significantly affected only respiration rate and sweating.     

Landscape Resources for the Territorial Nymphalid Butterfly Inachis io: Microsite Landform Selection and Behavioral Responses to Environmental Conditions

We investigate the use of landforms at different scales by males of the territorial nymphalid butterfly Inachis io (Linnaeus, 1758) under different weather conditions. They are known to use landforms at two different scales including macroscale, such as valley sides, tops of slopes and wood edges, and mini-landforms, such as molehills produced by the burrowing animal Talpa europaea Linnaeus (Linnaeus, 1758). Here, we demonstrate that they exploit microscale features on the molehills. The butterfly shifts its position in the landscape in relation to changing conditions by flying, and at the microscale, by walking. The links between thermoregulatory behavior and site selection indicate that perches are adopted to maintain body heat in the cool spring conditions when territories are established. Mini-landforms such as the molehills are adopted for their potential shelter and warmth in relation to ambient conditions; microsite selection typically includes warm niches on molehills, such as sunny slopes, sheltered margins and depressions. Shelter is adopted regardless of reduced visibility for territorial males. The importance of non-consumable (mate location) resources at different spatial scales is discussed in the context of habitat and the matrix.     

Physiological and Behavioral Effects of Zinc and Temperature on Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)

Pacific salmon species including the U.S. federally endangered coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and the U.S. federally threatened steelhead trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) have declined at an alarming rate in the last 40 years. Two of the main causes for the decline in coastal coho populations include increases in temperature and contaminant loads in coastal watersheds. Zinc, in particular, is one of the most common contaminants in aquatic systems. Using an experimental mesocosm design, we examined physiological, biochemical, and behavioral responses of coho salmon to excess dietary zinc and increased temperatures, with the ultimate goal of relating results to wild populations of coho salmon and steelhead in the Navarro River, California. Fish were obtained from a hatchery and divided into four treatments: low water temperature-no dietary zinc, high temperature-no zinc, low temperature-zinc, and high temperature-zinc. Each treatment had four replicate tanks. Zinc concentrations in liver increased during exposure to a high zinc diet. Iron concentrations in liver increased during simultaneous exposure to high zinc diet and increased temperature, and growth was reduced in this experimental treatment. Expression of hsp-70 was not significantly different between treatments, but showed decreasing trends with high dietary zinc and high temperature. Feeding rate increased with exposure to a high zinc diet. Comparison with steelhead trout samples from the Navarro River, California, showed levels of zinc, iron, and hsp-70 greater than those found in the experimental Coho salmon. All comparisons between the hatchery coho salmon and wild steelhead should be viewed with caution due to the differences between species, the laboratory and natural environment, and the genetic differences between wild and hatchery fish.     

Behavioral Disturbances: The Missing Link between Sub-Organismal and Supra-Organismal Responses to Stress? Prospects Based on Aquatic Research

Bridging the gap between early, sensitive responses to stress at the infra-organismal levels and long-term, ecologically relevant responses at the supra-organismal levels is a challenge. Behavioral ecotoxicology provides an approach that clearly links disturbances at the biochemical level (e.g., altered neurotransmitters and thyroid hormones) to effects at the population level. These effects may be direct, such as impairment of the search for a sexual partner, care of juveniles, and avoidance of predators or pollutants. Indirect effects may be alteration of reproduction success due to impairment of feeding and thus, energy metabolism. The sensitivity of behavioral responses can be useful in ecological risk assessment. A major difficulty is extrapolation of observed responses with test species to other species. Thus it is recommended to use behavioral biomarkers, associated with biochemical and physiological markers (neurotoxicity, hormones, energy metabolism) in carefully selected species. These sentinels must be key-species in the structure and functioning of ecosystems because impairments of their responses used as biomarkers will reveal a risk of cascading deleterious effects at the community and ecosystem levels.     

A Device to Study the Behavioral Responses of Zooplankton to Food Quality and Quantity

In order to explore the behavioral mechanisms underlying aggregation of foragers on local resource patches, it is necessary to manipulate the location, quality and quantity of food patches. This requires careful control over the conditions in the foraging arena, which may be a challenging task in the case of aquatic resource-consumer systems, like that of freshwater zooplankton feeding on suspended algal cells. We present an experimental tool designed to aid behavioral ecologists in exploring the consequences of resource characteristics for zooplankton aggregation behavior and movement decisions under conditions where the boundaries and characteristics (quantity and quality) of food patches can be standardized. The aggregation behavior of Daphnia magna and D. galeata x hyalina was tested in relation to i) the presence or absence of food or ii) food quality, where algae of high or low nutrient (phosphorus) content were offered in distinct patches. Individuals of both Daphnia species chose tubes containing food patches and D. galeata x hyalina also showed a preference towards food patches of high nutrient content. We discuss how the described equipment complements other behavioral approaches providing a useful tool to understand animal foraging decisions in environments with heterogeneous resource distributions.     

Initial outcomes of a harmonized approach to collect welfare data in sport and leisure horses

A truthful snapshot of horse welfare conditions is a prerequisite for predicting the impact of any actions intended to improve the quality of life of horses. This can be achieved when welfare information, gathered by different assessors in diverse geographical areas, is valid, comparable and collected in a harmonized way. This paper aims to present the first outcomes of the Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) approach: the results of on-farm assessment and a reliable and harmonized data collection system. A total of 355 sport and leisure horses, stabled in 40 facilities in Italy and in Germany, were evaluated by three trained assessors using the AWIN welfare assessment protocol for horses. The AWINHorse app was used to collect, store and send data to a common server. Identified welfare issues were obesity, unsatisfactory box dimensions, long periods of confinement and lack of social interaction. The digitalized data collection was feasible in an on-farm environment, and our results suggest that this approach could prove useful in identifying the most relevant welfare issues of horses in Europe or worldwide.