Legal instruments in private land conservation: the nature and role of conservation contracts and conservation covenants

Management of private land for ecological outcomes has emerged as an important facet of biodiversity management and ecological restoration in Australia. Common law conservation contracts and conservation covenants are important tools within this framework of private land conservation. They can provide legal protections to biodiversity and natural assets on private land, as well as legal frameworks, in the form of obligations, to restoration programs. They can provide distinct qualities of binding obligation: fixed term or enduring. Conservation contracts and covenants need to be recognized as possessing both transactional and relational qualities, and these qualities should be considered and reflected in the design of agreements and in practices of conservation management and agreement‐making. Two design questions are considered in this article. Conservation agreements need to contend with dynamism in ecological and social realities and this may be accommodated in mechanisms for adjustment of obligations between or within agreements. Dispute management is a second field of practice and drafting requiring attention. Constructing disputes provisions that are adapted and appropriate to long‐term conservation actions and restoration initiatives is reflective of good faith principles and can include scope for graduated, independent, corrective, and fair arrangements, informed as necessary by expert input.     

Assessing significance for biodiversity conservation on private land in New Zealand

The assessment of ecological significance is a key part of a territorial local authority’s (TLA) responsibility to provide for the protection of areas of significant indigenous vegetation and significant habitats of indigenous fauna as required under Section 6(c) of the Resource Management Act (RMA) 1991. While a number of methods have been used to achieve this, these have been largely unpublished and there is considerable variability in the approach taken by different TLAs. We propose four criteria (rarity and distinctiveness, representativeness, ecological context, and sustainability) for assessing significance of indigenous biodiversity in terms of RMA Section 6(c). These criteria could form the basis for a consistent national approach to significance assessment. These criteria have been developed from early assessment schemes such as the Protected Natural Areas Programme. While there is no one “right” system for conservation assessment, we hope this paper will stimulate discussion amongst the ecological community on the best ways to undertake significance assessment.     

Effects of hunter access and habitat security on elk habitat selection in landscapes with a public and private land matrix

Traditional elk habitat management on public land has focused on providing security habitat for bull elk during the hunting season to provide for both adequate hunter opportunity and bull survival. This paradigm has given less consideration to adult female elk habitat use, patterns of adjacent land ownership, and hunter access. This paradigm also was developed when elk population sizes were much smaller in many areas. In many Rocky Mountain states, the focus of elk population management has recently shifted to reducing or maintaining elk population sizes, necessitating a better understanding of the implications of security habitat management, as well as patterns of adjacent land ownership and hunter access, on adult female elk. We addressed this need by testing the hypotheses that during the hunting season: 1) adult female elk selection for areas prohibiting or limiting hunter access is stronger than elk selection for publicly owned and managed elk security habitat, 2) these effects occur during the archery hunting period and intensify during the rifle hunting period, and 3) the effects of hunter access on selection are consistent among herds that occupy landscapes characterized by a matrix of public and private lands. We used global position system locations collected from 82 females in 2 different Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) elk herds to evaluate effects of hunter access, security habitat as defined by the Hillis paradigm, and other landscape attributes on adult female elk resource selection during the pre-hunting, archery, rifle, and post-hunting periods. We found that female elk selection for areas restricting public hunting access was stronger than selection for security habitat in both study areas, and that the density of roads open to motorized use was the strongest predictor of elk distribution. Increases in selection for areas that restricted hunting access occurred during the rifle hunting period, and we did not find consistent evidence these movements were triggered by the archery hunting period. Our results provide evidence that in landscapes characterized by a matrix of public and privately owned lands, traditional concepts of elk security habitat need to be expanded to also include areas that restrict hunter access to plan for elk population management that is regulated through adult female harvest. Future efforts should investigate whether elk use of areas that restrict hunter access are flexible behavioral responses to hunting risk, or if these behaviors are passed from generation to generation such that a learned pattern of private land use becomes the normal movement pattern rather than a short-term behavioral response. Published 2013. This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.     

Corridors and barriers in biodiversity conservation: a novel resource-based habitat perspective for butterflies

Habitat loss and fragmentation, exacerbated by projected climate change, present the greatest threats to preservation of global biodiversity. As increasing habitat fragmentation and isolation of residual fragments exceeds the dispersal capacity of species, there is the growing need to address connectivity to maintain diversity. Traditionally, habitat corridors have been proposed as a solution. But, the concept of corridors (barriers) is poorly understood; typically they are defined as linear habitats linking up habitat patchwork, and are advocated without a detailed understanding of the elements making up species’ habitats and the cost-effectiveness of alternative solutions. Yet, landscapes comprise an enormous range of ‘linear’ structures that can function in different ways to promote species’ persistence and diversity. In this review, a functional definition of corridor (barrier) is developed to give prominence to connectivity as opposed to ad hoc structures purported to advance connectivity. In developing the concept, urgency to accommodate environmental changes compels a growing emphasis on organism diversity rather than a preoccupation with single species conservation. The review, in focusing on butterflies to address the issue of corridors for patchwork connectivity, draws attention to fundamental divisions among organisms in any taxon: generalists and specialists. Both groups benefit from large patches as these necessarily house species with specialist resources as well as generalists with very different resource types. But, generalists and specialists require very different solutions for connectivity, from short-range habitat corridors and gateways for specialists to habitat and resource stepping stones (nodes, surfaces) for generalists. Connectivity over extensive areas is most critical for moderate generalists and their conservation requires emphasis being placed on space–time resource heterogeneity; landscape features, of whatever dimensionality and structure, provide a vital framework for developing the variety of suitable conditions and resources for enhancing their diversity.     

Impact of cattle on conservation land licensed for grazing in South Westland, New Zealand

Making use of existing fences as ready-made exclosures, this study aimed to assess the long-term effects of cattle grazing on forest margins. Results indicated: 1) that cattle browsing and trampling has an impact on vegetation species composition, structure and regeneration; 2) that the effects of a particular grazing regime may take many decades to dissipate; and 3) that the impacts of cattle change with stock intensity. Some plant species appeared to be highly palatable to cattle and only occurred on sites without cattle. Such species included pate (Schefflera digitata), broadleaf (Griselinia littoralis), pigeonwood (Hedycarya arborea), supplejack (Ripogonum scandens), mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus), milk tree (Streblus heterophyllus), lancewood (Pseudopanax crassifolius) and hen and chickens fern (Asplenium bulbiferum). A small group of plants appeared to regenerate better under cattle than in their absence, particularly mountain horopito (Pseudowintera colorata) and prickly shield fern (Polystichum vestitum). A few species were encouraged by cattle at one site but suppressed by them at another: kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides), wheki (Dicksonia squarrosa), Coprosma rhamnoidesand Blechnum fluviatile. The impact of cattle on most other plant species was not discernible. The results of this study, while somewhat equivocal, indicate that future grazing licences in South Westland should restrict stock to low numbers and be confined to already modified sites where damage to conservation values would be minimal.     

How increasing levels of private land enrollment in conservation agreements affect the population viability of grassland birds

There is a growing recognition that to effectively conserve biodiversity efforts have to extend into the realm of engaging private landowners. Agricultural lands have been particularly attractive targets for integrating conservation and production goals. Changes in hayfield management associated with agricultural intensification, including earlier and more frequent harvests, have a severe impact on grassland birds. Government-administered conservation incentive programs benefit grassland birds by delaying harvest dates on enrolled land to allow nesting pairs to successfully fledge at least one brood during the breeding season. In contrast, hayfields that are mowed during the breeding season support sink populations and may function as ecological traps. We examined the effect of increasing levels of hayfield enrollment on grasshopper sparrow population viability using a spatially-explicit, stage-structured, stochastic model of a grasshopper sparrow metapopulation in an urbanizing region of New Jersey. The probability of metapopulation extinction (POE) decreased as the proportion of enrolled hayfields increased and fell below 10% when about half of all available agricultural land was enrolled. POE also decreased with increasing numbers of enrolled hayfields most likely because hayfield enrollment removes a sink population from the landscape in addition to creating a source population. Our results are encouraging as they demonstrate that extinction risk for this grassland-dependent imperiled species can be reduced without having to protect or manage all remaining grassland habitat in the landscape.     

Roe deer at risk: teasing apart habitat selection and landscape constraints in risk exposure at multiple scales

Non‐consumptive effects of predators result from the cost of responses to perceived risk. Prey modulate risk exposure through flexible habitat selection at multiple scales which, in interaction with landscape constraints, determines their use of risky habitats. Identifying the relative contributions of landscape constraints and habitat selection to risk exposure is a critical first step towards a mechanistic understanding of non‐consumptive effects. Here, we provide an integrative multi‐scale study of roe deer spatial responses to variable hunting pressure along a landscape gradient of open habitats and dispersed refuges. Between low‐risk and high‐risk periods, we investigated shifts in 1) home‐range location, 2) probability of using risky habitats (between‐habitat scale) and 3) distance to the nearest refuge (within‐habitat scale). For 2) and 3), we disentangled the contributions of landscape constraints and habitat selection to risky habitat use. We found that when risk was high, roe deer did not shift their home‐range, but generally decreased their use of risky habitats, and sometimes reduced their distance to cover (particularly older animals). There was a functional response in between‐habitat selection, with animals living in more open landscapes responding more than those living in landscapes with more refuges. However, individuals living in more open landscapes avoided open risky habitat less. Finally, we found that among‐individual variation in risk exposure was generally, but not always, minimized by habitat selection across gradients of landscape constraints. To our knowledge, this is the first study simultaneously documenting prey responses to risk at the within‐habitat, between‐habitat and home‐range scales. Our results support the view that between‐habitat selection acts at a higher hierarchical level than within‐habitat selection, and provide a framework for disentangling the contributions of habitat selection and landscape constraints to risk exposure. Selection cannot always compensate for landscape constraints, indicating a need for further investigation of the processes underlying habitat selection.     

Experimental technique for the conservation of private lands

A community-based sanctuary for the black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra) has been established on 18 square miles of riverine forest along the Belize river, Belize. It is based on voluntary signed pledges by subsistence farmers to abide by management plans for their lands. Conservation-education programs which impact favorably on the villagers are being carried out.     

Trends and values of ‘Land for Wildlife’ programs for private land conservation

The Land for Wildlife program started in Victoria in 1981 as a voluntary program with the broad aim of supporting landholders in providing habitat for wildlife on their property. The program has since spread across Australia and is implemented in a range of guises, through a variety of governance approaches. This research collected qualitative and quantitative data on Land for Wildlife programs across Australia to conduct the first national review. Data were gathered on changes in program membership to assess different participation trends. In addition, phone interviews with Land for Wildlife coordinators throughout Australia were conducted to explore how the programs are positioned in delivering biodiversity outcomes in a range of different regions. Over 14,000 properties covering 2.3 million ha are currently registered under Land for Wildlife programs. with at least 500,000 ha of habitat managed for conservation. Limited resources present a large challenge faced by a number of programs, with generally low funding and staffing resulting in restricted biodiversity focus and conservation outcomes. We suggest options to enhance the programs and propose future research directions.     

Impacts of land use at the catchment scale constrain the habitat benefits of stream riparian buffers

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Changing attitudes to nature conservation: the botanical perspective

Concern to protect wild plants began possibly as early as the eighteenth century. The early-Victorian liberal tide brought the first protests at the over-collecting of rarities, but it seemingly needed the shock of the mid-century fern craze to swing botanical opinion to the cause of moderation. Protective legislation and the establishment of sanctuaries thereafter became the twin concerns, but progress was disappointing. Conservation and the creation of reserves, the fruit of ecological thinking, rose to be the dominant aim only after the Second World War. Developments since then have been rapid and substantial.     

Changing attitudes to nature conservation: the ornithological perspective

Early conservation centred on legislation to prevent species declines. It now includes habitat conseivation, through the establishment of reserves and land management practices in the wider countryside. This need for a broader approach is increasingly acknowledged and presents great opportunities.
Bird enthusiasts, for obvious reasons, have been in the forefront of conservation. This interest continues nationally and internationally.     

Changing attitudes to nature conservation: the entomological perspective

Unlike some other kinds of wildlife, insects have little attraction for the public. Insects tend to be a specialist interest, partly because the numbers of species are so large. This concentrates attention on insect identification and the impossibility of accomplishing this in the field except in a few cases. Some conflict between economic entomologists and conservationists has been apparent. Conservation organizations, including those specifically interested in insects, have influenced attitudes, as has the development of ecology, applied biogeography, and other scientific disciplines. Legislation for insect conservation is not satisfactory; not enough emphasis is laid on habitat conservation and the concepts of protected and endangered species are confused. Better cooperation and understanding between legislators and field entomologists are desirable. Species conservation in Britain emphasises butterflies. Many of the species thought to be threatened with extinction in 1925 are also of priority concern today. Better habitat management and re-establishments, both national and local, are important conservation activities. In the Third World, conservation is closely linked with utilization of the resource. This rational and sustainable use is in accordance with the World Conservation Strategy and benefits the rural poor in areas where attitudes to conservation in the developed world are inappropriate.     

Species richness coincidence: conservation strategies based on predictive modelling

The present-day geographic distribution of individual species of five taxonomic groups (plants, dragonflies, butterflies, herpetofauna and breeding birds) is relatively well-known on a small scale (5 × 5 km squares) in Flanders (north Belgium). These data allow identification of areas with a high diversity within each of the species groups. However, differences in mapping intensity and coverage hamper straightforward comparisons of species-rich areas among the taxonomic groups. To overcome this problem, we modelled the species richness of each taxonomic group separately using various environmental characteristics as predictor variables (area of different land use types, biotope diversity, topographic and climatic features). We applied forward stepwise multiple regression to build the models, using a subset of well-surveyed squares. A separate set of equally well-surveyed squares was used to test the predictions of the models. The coincidence of geographic areas with high predicted species richness was remarkably high among the four faunal groups, but much lower between plants and each of the four faunal groups. Thus, the four investigated faunal groups can be used as relatively good indicator taxa for one another in Flanders, at least for their within-group species diversity. A mean predicted species diversity per mapping square was also estimated by averaging the standardised predicted species richness over the five taxonomic groups, to locate the regions that were predicted as being the most species-rich for all five investigated taxonomic groups together. Finally, the applicability of predictive modelling in nature conservation policy both in Flanders and in other regions is discussed.     

Marker-assisted conservation of European cattle breeds: An evaluation

Two methods have been developed for the assessment of conservation priorities on the basis of molecular markers. According to the Weitzman approach, contributions to genetic diversity are derived from genetic distances between populations. Alternatively, diversity within and across populations is optimized by minimizing marker-estimated kinships. We have applied, for the first time, both methods to a comprehensive data set of 69 European cattle breeds, including all cosmopolitan breeds and several local breeds, for which genotypes of 30 microsatellite markers in 25–50 animals per breed have been obtained. Both methods were used to calculate the gain in diversity if a breed was added to a set of nine non-endangered breeds. Weitzman-derived diversities were confounded by genetic drift in isolated populations, which dominates the genetic distances but does not necessarily increase the conservation value of a breed. Marker-estimated kinships across populations were less disturbed by genetic drift than the Weitzman diversities and assigned high conservation values to Mediterranean breeds, which indeed have genetic histories that differ from the non-endangered breeds. Prospects and limitations of marker-assisted decisions on conservation priorities are discussed.     

Spatial scale mediates the influence of habitat fragmentation on dispersal success: Implications for conservation

Increasingly, conservationists are seeking insights from ecological theory to choose strategies of habitat management that will best maintain threatened species. Often, these questions revolve around ways of mitigating the dangers posed by habitat fragmentation. Problems involving the scale of both animal movement and spatial heterogeneity inexorably arise when assessing the effects of fragmentation. We present results from a simple spatial model that simulates the dispersal of animals in a landscape of stochastically clustered habitat fragments. Varying the number of clusters and the spatial scale at which clustering occurs illustrates that heterogeneity has different and conflicting effects on animal movement when it occurs at different scales. Indeed, the scale of clustering is the most important feature in determining disperser performance in our model. Seeking to compare our modeling results with actual data, we review empirical studies of fragmented populations and habitats. Surprisingly, we conclude that very few studies have addressed the mechanisms by which fragmentation will influence population dynamics or, in particular, the ways in which spatial scale mediate these effects. We conclude that the explicit consideration of scale is essential in discussions of habitat fragmentation and of optimal conservation strategies.