Translocation of Otostegia bucharica,a highly threatened narrowly distributed relict shrub

Translocation is a recognized means of rescuing imperiled species but the evidence for the long-term success of translocations is limited. We report the successful translocation of reproductive individuals of a critically endangered shrub Otostegia bucharica from a site facing imminent habitat destruction into a nearby natural population of the species. The relocated plants were visited the year after planting and 13 years later to assess short-and long-term plant survival. Significant percentage of plants that survived transplanting shock and very dry spring following transplanting(around 36%), and further decrease of this number in the next 12 years by only 14%, indicated that O. bucharica is amenable to translocation using reproductive plants. Based on results of species distribution modeling, and failed attempts of ex situ cultivation, we propose introduction of this species into areas with suitable climatic and soil conditions.However, because there is currently no nature reserve in Uzbekistan having suitable conditions for the species under the present climate and that expected in the near future, and because all known habitats of O. bucharica are exposed to the very strong anthropogenic pressure, establishment of a new protected area, awareness building and involvement of local community in conservation activities are required to prevent extinction of this extremely rare species.     

Biodiversity surrogate effectiveness in two habitat types of contrasting gradient complexity

Enormous and increasing loss of biodiversity requires evaluation of surrogate taxa as a tool for conservation biology and new reserve selection, in spite of the fact that this approach has become questionable. The aim of this study was to assess the effect of gradient complexity on species richness and community composition among three taxonomic groups. We compared efficiency of vascular plants to indicate diversity of cryptogams (bryophytes, lichens) and snails in two contrasting habitat types (treeless fens and forests) within the same geographic region. We examined correlation of their species richness (Spearman rank correlation), community composition (Bray–Curtis similarity, Mantel test) and their responses to environmental variables (detrended and canonical correspondence analysis). We also focused on Red List species. We found that spatial congruence among studied taxa was affected by habitat type, however vascular plants were good indicator of snail biodiversity in both habitats. Nevertheless, all significant positive correlations of species richness were associated with the congruence in main environmental gradients. Although there was a consistency in significantly positive cross-taxon correlation in community similarity, the congruence was insufficient for conservation purposes. Furthermore we confirmed the necessity of integration of at-risk species in conservation planning as Red List species were poor indicators for total species richness and vice versa. We suggest the complementation of existing reserve network with small-scale protected areas focused on conservation of at-risk ecosystems, communities or species. In this study vascular plants were not found as a sufficient indicator for fine-filter conservation of other taxa.     

Assessing habitat suitability for tiger in the fragmented Terai Arc Landscape of India and Nepal

Tiger Panthera tigris populations have declined dramatically in the Terai Arc Landscape (TAL; India and Nepal), and remaining populations are highly fragmented and endangered. As part of a research program to aid tiger management by identifying critical areas for conservation, we aimed to 1) identify the factors which affect the distribution of tigers in the TAL; 2) explore the role of spatial scale in habitat selection; 3) map potentially suitable habitats; and 4) assess the quality of potential corridors linking suitable habitats. We used an approach based on presence and pseudo‐absence data, combining ecological niche factor analysis and generalized linear models. We used an information‐theoretic approach to compare our data on tiger presence with different hypotheses on tiger habitat selection (i.e. protective habitat, prey species, human disturbance), and spatial scales. All hypotheses yielded models with high prediction accuracy (>79%). The most parsimonious model included variables characterizing habitat suitability of the 2 main prey species. More detailed assessment of potentially suitable areas using an extended source‐sink approach suggested that most of the habitats outside the protected areas were attractive sink‐like habitats (i.e. they suffered high levels of human disturbance in otherwise good habitats). Overall, 24% (ca 18 500 km²) of the study area was predicted as suitable (probability cut‐off p>0.5), approximately 7% of which is under protection. Our models showed that protecting the remaining concentrations of tigers requires focusing management efforts on specific areas outside the currently protected areas. These are characterized by good natural suitability; however, they suffer from a high level of human disturbance. Our models underscore the importance of minimizing human disturbances in these areas to avoid that they act as attractive sinks but act as corridors between existing subpopulations.     

Integrating multiple species connectivity and habitat quality into conservation planning for coral reefs

Incorporating connectivity into the design of marine protected areas (MPAs) has met with conceptual, theoretical, and practical challenges, which include: 1) the need to consider connectivity for multiple species with different dispersal abilities, and 2) the role played by variable habitat quality in determining the spatial patterns of connectivity. We propose an innovative approach, combining biophysical modeling with a routinely‐used tool for marine‐reserve design (Marxan), to address both challenges by using ecologically‐informed connectivity parameters. We showed how functional demographic connectivity for four candidate reef‐associated species with varying dispersal abilities and a suite of connectivity metrics weighted by habitat quality can be used to set conservation objectives and inform MPA placement. Overall, the strength of dispersal barriers varied across modeled species and, also across species, we found a lack of spatial concordance of reefs that were high‐quality sources, self‐persistent, and stepping‐stones. Including spatially‐heterogeneous habitat quality made a considerable difference to connectivity patterns, significantly reducing the potential reproductive output from many reefs. We also found that caution is needed in combining connectivity data from modeled species into multi‐species matrices, which do not perform reliably as surrogates for all connectivity metrics of individual species. We then showed that restricting the habitat available for conservation has an inequitable impact on different connectivity objectives and species, with greatest impact on betweenness centrality and long‐distance dispersers. We used Brazilian coral reefs as a case study but our approach is applicable to both marine and terrestrial conservation planning, and offers a holistic way to design functionally‐connected reserves to tackle the complex issues relevant to planning for persistence.     

Prioritizing global marine mammal habitats using density maps in place of range maps

Despite lessons from terrestrial systems, conservation efforts in marine systems continue to focus on identifying priority sites for protection based on high species richness inferred from range maps. Range maps oversimplify spatial variability in animal distributions by assuming uniform distribution within range and de facto giving equal weight to critical and marginal habitats. We used Marxan ver. 2.43 to compare species richness‐based systematic reserve network solutions using information about marine mammal range and relative abundance. At a global scale, reserve network solutions were strongly sensitive to model inputs and assumptions. Solutions based on different input data overlapped by a third at most, with agreement as low as 10% in some cases. At a regional scale, species richness was inversely related to density, such that species richness hotspots excluded highest‐density areas for all species. Based on these findings, we caution that species‐richness estimates derived from range maps and used as input in conservation planning exercises may inadvertently lead to protection of largely marginal habitat.     

Conserving Biogeography: Habitat Loss and Vicariant Patterns in Endemic Squamates of the Cerrado Hotspot

Little is known about the threat levels and impacts of habitat loss over the Cerrado Squamate fauna. The region is under severe habitat loss due to mechanized agriculture, accelerated by changes in the Brazilian National Forest Code. The Squamate fauna of the Cerrado is rich in endemics and is intrinsically associated with its surrounding microhabitats, which make up a mosaic of phitophysiognomies throughout the region. Herein we evaluate current conservation status of Squamate biogeographic patterns in the Brazilian Cerrado, the single savanna among global biodiversity hotspots. To do so, we first updated point locality data on 49 endemic Squamates pertaining to seven non-random clusters of species ranges in the Cerrado. Each cluster was assumed to be representative of different biogeographic regions, holding its own set of species, herein mapped according to their extent of occurrence (EOO). We then contrasted these data in four different scenarios, according to the presence or absence of habitat loss and the presence or absence of the current protected area (PA) cover. We searched for non-random patterns of habitat loss and PA coverage among these biogeographic regions throughout the Cerrado. Finally, with the species EOO as biodiversity layers, we used Zonation to discuss contemporary PA distribution, as well as to highlight current priority areas for conservation within the Cerrado. We ran Zonation under all four conservation scenarios mentioned above. We observed that habitat loss and PA coverage significantly differed between biogeographic regions. The southernmost biogeographic region is the least protected and the most impacted, with priority areas highly scattered in small, disjunct fragments. The northernmost biogeographic region (Tocantins-Serra Geral) is the most protected and least impacted, showing extensive priority areas in all Zonation scenarios. Therefore, current and past deforestation trends are severely threatening biogeographic patterns in the Cerrado. Moreover, PA distribution is spatially biased, and does not represent biogeographic divisions of the Cerrado. Consequently, we show that biogeographic patterns and processes are being erased at an accelerated pace, reinforcing the urgent need to create new reserves and to avoid the loss of the last remaining fragments of once continuous biogeographic regions. These actions are fundamental and urgent for conserving biogeographic and evolutionary information in this highly imperiled savanna hotspot.     

Determining fine‐scale migratory connectivity and habitat selection for a migratory songbird by using new GPS technology

Migratory aerial insectivores are among the fastest declining avian groups, but our understanding of these trends has been limited by poor knowledge of migratory connectivity and the identification of critical habitat across the vast distances they travel annually. Using new, archival GPS loggers, we tracked individual purple martins Progne subis from breeding colonies across North America to determine precise (< > 10 m) locations of migratory and overwintering roost locations in South America and to test hypotheses for fine‐scale migratory connectivity and habitat use. We discovered weak migratory connectivity at the roost scale, and extensive, fine‐scale mixing of birds in the Amazon from distant (> 2000 km) breeding sites, with some individuals sharing the same roosting trees. Despite vast tracts of contiguous forest in this region, birds occupied a much more limited habitat, with most (56%) roosts occurring on small habitat islands that were strongly associated with water. Only 17% of these roosts were in current protected areas. These data reflect a critical advance in our ability to remotely determine precise migratory connectivity and habitat selection across vast spatial scales, enhancing our understanding of population dynamics and enabling more effective conservation of species at risk.     

Surface to subsurface freshwater connections: phylogeographic and habitat analyses of Cambarus tenebrosus, a facultative cave-dwelling crayfish

This study examined the phylogeography and population demographics of Cambarus tenebrosus , which has an unusually large distribution for a freshwater crayfish species, encompassing the Interior Lowlands and Cumberland Plateau of the eastern United States. This facultative cave-dweller provides a unique perspective on the biologic connections between surface and subsurface freshwater ecosystems, which are considered to be highly imperiled due to pollution and habitat degradation. The 16S mitochondrial gene was sequenced for 233 individuals from 84 cave and 20 surface locations throughout the range, with most sampling concentrated around the Cumberland Plateau of the southern Appalachians, to assess conservation status of this species and examine the extent of gene flow between the two habitat types. Cave and surface populations formed a single monophyletic group relative to Cambarus striatus , and clades showed strong geographical associations, but lacked habitat structuring. Occupation of subterranean environments does not appear to be a recent event in the evolutionary history of the species. The large amount of genetic diversity within the species, coupled with its ability to inhabit surface and subsurface environments, suggests that this species may pose a threat as a possible invasive species in other karst-dominated landscapes.     

Spatial heterogeneity and habitat configuration overcome habitat composition influences on alpha and beta mammal diversity

The effects of habitat fragmentation on different taxa and ecosystems are subject to intense debate, and disentangling them is of utmost importance to support conservation and management strategies. We evaluated the importance of landscape composition and configuration, and spatial heterogeneity to explain α- and β-diversity of mammals across a gradient of percent woody cover and land use diversity. We expected species richness to be positively related to all predictive variables, with the strongest relationship with landscape composition and configuration, and spatial heterogeneity respectively. We also expected landscape to influence β-diversity in the same order of importance expected for species richness, with a stronger influence on nestedness due to deterministic loss of species more sensitive to habitat disturbance. We analyzed landscape structure using: (a) landscape metrics based on thematic maps and (b) image texture of a vegetation index. We compared a set of univariate explanatory models of species richness using AIC, and evaluated how dissimilarities in landscape composition and configuration and spatial heterogeneity affect β-diversity components using a Multiple Regression on distance Matrix. Contrary with our expectations, landscape configuration was the main driver of species richness, followed by spatial heterogeneity and last by landscape composition. Nestedness was explained, in order of importance, by spatial heterogeneity, landscape configuration, and landscape composition. Although conservation policies tend to focus mainly on habitat amount, we advocate that landscape management must include strategies to preserve and improve habitat quality and complexity in natural patches and the surrounding matrix, enabling landscapes to harbor high species diversity.     

Microhabitat of critically endangered Lupinus aridorum (Fabaceae) at wild and introduced locations in Florida scrub

Elucidating microhabitat preferences of a rare species are critical for its conservation. Lupinus aridorum McFarlin ex Beckner (Fabaceae) is a critically endangered plant known only from a few locations in imperiled Florida scrub habitat and nothing is known about its preferred microhabitat. Our goals were threefold. First, determine whether L. aridorum has multiple cytotypes because this can influence its spatial distribution. Second, measure how microhabitat characteristics at locations supporting wild L. aridorum vary from random locations, which will provide information about microhabitat characteristics that influence the spatial distribution of individuals. Third, measure whether microhabitat characteristics differ between locations supporting wild or introduced plants, which will provide information about the realized and fundamental niche. Our research determined that L. aridorum is diploid and grew, on average, in areas closer to trees and shrubs, with lower soil moisture, and with a greater mixture of detritus than random locations. Some microhabitat characteristics at locations where L. aridorum were introduced were similar to microhabitat supporting wild L. aridorum, but multiple soil characteristics differed as did the plant community, which contained more nonnative plant species near introduced plants. Therefore, the realized niche is narrower than the fundamental niche. Overall, information about the microhabitat of L. aridorum can be used to design appropriate management programs to conserve and restore populations of this plant species and species that occupy a similar niche in imperiled Florida scrub.     

Integrating GIS and expert judgment in a multi-criteria analysis to map and develop a habitat suitability index: A case study of large mammals on the Malayan Peninsula

Many habitat patches in tropical landscapes have become less suitable for wildlife due to an increase in anthropogenic disturbances. An index of habitat suitability based on the ecological factors that collectively determine the suitability of an organism's habitat is important for conservation planning. However, a widely accepted and comprehensive multi-criteria habitat suitability index for umbrella species is still lacking, particularly in areas where information related to the biology and ecology of the species of interest is not available. Therefore we develop preliminary habitat maps and measure the degree of habitat suitability for large mammals, focusing on four umbrella species in the State of Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia: Panthera tigris jacksoni (Malayan tiger), Tapirus indicus (Malayan tapir), Helarctos malayanus malayanus (Malayan sun bear), and Rusa unicolor cambojensis (sambar deer). The former two are endangered and the latter two are vulnerable according to the IUCN Red List. The suitability of habitat patches for each species was measured across the entire study area as well as in nine wildlife protected areas by integrating GIS data and expert opinion. Expert opinions were used as the source of information regarding the stresses faced by the species because there was insufficient information available from ground surveys.We developed an index and maps of habitat suitability for each species, which were then integrated to represent a combined index (ranging from 0 to 27) and spatially explicit maps of the area's habitat suitability for large mammals. The average large mammal habitat suitability index value of the State of Selangor (9) indicates that many habitat patches have become unsuitable for such species. Of the nine wildlife protected areas, Fraser's Hill (22), Sungai Dusun (22), and Bukit Kutu (21) are very suitable; Klang Gate (20) and Templers Park (17) are suitable; and the remaining four are unsuitable for large mammals. We assume that this preliminary habitat suitability index and mapping are useful for conservation planning of wildlife habitats at both landscape and regional scales, as well as providing an initial foundation for revision by future research with significant new information.     

Vulnerability of ecosystems to climate change moderated by habitat intactness

The combined effects of climate change and habitat loss represent a major threat to species and ecosystems around the world. Here, we analyse the vulnerability of ecosystems to climate change based on current levels of habitat intactness and vulnerability to biome shifts, using multiple measures of habitat intactness at two spatial scales. We show that the global extent of refugia depends highly on the definition of habitat intactness and spatial scale of the analysis of intactness. Globally, 28% of terrestrial vegetated area can be considered refugia if all natural vegetated land cover is considered. This, however, drops to 17% if only areas that are at least 50% wilderness at a scale of 48 × 48 km are considered and to 10% if only areas that are at least 50% wilderness at a scale of 4.8 × 4.8 km are considered. Our results suggest that, in regions where relatively large, intact wilderness areas remain (e.g. Africa, Australia, boreal regions, South America), conservation of the remaining large‐scale refugia is the priority. In human‐dominated landscapes, (e.g. most of Europe, much of North America and Southeast Asia), focusing on finer scale refugia is a priority because large‐scale wilderness refugia simply no longer exist. Action to conserve such refugia is particularly urgent since only 1 to 2% of global terrestrial vegetated area is classified as refugia and at least 50% covered by the global protected area network.     

How well do the existing and proposed reserve networks represent vertebrate species in Chile?

Increasingly, biogeographical knowledge and analysis are playing a fundamental role in assessing the representativeness of biodiversity in protected areas, and in identifying critical areas for conservation. With almost 20% of the country assigned to protected areas, Chile is well above the conservation target (i.e. 10–12%) proposed by many international conservation organizations. Moreover, the Chilean government has recently proposed new conservation priority sites to improve the current protected area network. Here, we used all 653 terrestrial vertebrate species present in continental Chile to assess the performance of the existing and proposed reserve networks. Using geographical information systems, we overlaid maps of species distribution, current protected areas, and proposed conservation priority sites to assess how well each species is represented within these networks. Additionally, we performed a systematic reserve selection procedure to identify alternative conservation areas for expanding the current reserve system. Our results show that over 13% of the species are not covered by any existing protected area, and that 73% of Chilean vertebrate species can be considered partial gaps, with only a small fraction of their geographical ranges currently under protection. The coverage is also deficient for endemic (species confined to Chile) and threatened species. While the proposed priority sites do increase coverage, we found that there are still several gaps and these are not the most efficient choices. Both the gap analysis and the reserve selection analysis identified important areas to be added to the existing reserve system, mostly in northern and central Chile. This study underscores the need for a systematic conservation planning approach to redefine the conservation priority sites in order to maximize the representation of species, particularly endemic and threatened species.     

Population structure and gene flow in a heavily disturbed habitat: implications for the management of the imperilled Red Hills salamander (Phaeognathus hubrichti)

Estimating levels of gene flow and assessing levels of population connectivity are of critical importance to the field of conservation genetics, especially for imperiled species. Many factors can influence dispersal and therefore gene-flow patterns across a natural landscape. These patterns can be substantially altered by the impacts of habitat modification by humans or natural phenomena. Landscape-genetic studies that address both historical and contemporary influences on gene flow can be critical to demonstrating whether isolated populations with low levels of genetic variation are typical of the species or a result of strong negative effects of such modification. We used 10 microsatellite markers to investigate the spatial genetic patterns of the Red Hills salamander (Phaeognathus hubrichti), a federally listed species. Bayesian clustering revealed five well-supported demes within the range of P. hubrichti. Gene-flow analysis suggested that overall migration levels for P. hubrichti are low, but coalescent methods indicate that migration levels were significantly higher before habitat modification by humans. By accounting for history and species characteristics, our results suggest that loss and fragmentation of habitat have strongly negatively affected P. hubrichti by reducing migration, increasing bottlenecks, and promoting high levels of inbreeding.     

重大工程影响下新疆卡拉麦里山有蹄类野生动物自然保护区鹅喉羚的生境格局变化

生境评价对物种保护具有重要意义。鹅喉羚(Gazella subgutturosa)是新疆卡拉麦里山有蹄类野生动物自然保护区的代表性物种, 开展其生境适宜性评价可以为该物种的保护和管理提供科学依据。作者基于2005-2019年采用样线法在保护区开展野外调查所获鹅喉羚的分布点数据, 利用最大熵(MaxEnt)模型筛选环境变量, 评估鹅喉羚在矿业开发前(2005年)、矿业开发顶峰时(2011年)和矿区生态修复后(2019年) 3个时期的生境质量; 采用质心转移和景观格局指数分析近15年鹅喉羚的生境空间格局变化特征。结果表明模型预测结果准确性较高, 3个时期鹅喉羚的潜在适宜生境面积波动较大, Jackknife检验结果表明在任一时期水源点对鹅喉羚生境选择的影响均最大。矿业开发前鹅喉羚适宜生境分布于保护区中部, 主要特征为面积大、生境斑块集中、破碎化程度低; 矿业开发顶峰时鹅喉羚的适宜生境面积较矿业开发前减少2.39%, 尤其是保护区南部大面积适宜生境丧失, 质心转移和景观格局指数分析结果显示适宜生境向保护区北部转移, 生境斑块离散破碎程度高; 实施矿区生态修复后鹅喉羚的适宜生境面积较矿业开发顶峰时增加了3.50%, 因矿业开发丧失的生境重新成为鹅喉羚的适宜生境。与2005年以前相比, 2019年鹅喉羚生境斑块仍离散化严重, 部分适宜生境因新修建的高速公路和铁路而重新丧失。基于以上研究结果, 我们从保护水源、控制交通建设、修复矿区和加强野生动物通道监测等4个方面对鹅喉羚种群保护管理提出了建议。     

Determinants of habitat occupancy and spatial segregation of primates in the central Western Ghats,India

Primates - Primates are among the globally imperiled fauna requiring urgent conservation interventions to protect their habitat. Information on species distribution and factors influencing it are...     

Spatio-temporal changes in habitat potential of endangered freshwater fish in Japan

In recent years, biodiversity conservation and ecosystem restoration have been key issues of watershed management in many countries. To maintain or restore the environmental quality of watersheds, we need to assess the impact of anthropogenic changes on stream ecosystems with accuracy. In addition, watershed conservation planners have to make strategic plans and determine priorities of each conservation activity.

A new monitoring methodology to evaluate the change of habitat condition for freshwater fish based on a predictive habitat model using logistic regression was developed and applied to the whole of Japan. The main contributions of our approach were 1) the construction of a Geographical Information System (GIS) database that integrates many types of data, including freshwater fish species, water quality, habitat fragmentation by damming, geology, and climate; 2) spatial analysis for quantitative assessment and predictive habitat modeling using logistic regression to combine fish survey data and environmental habitat factors to determine critical and major habitat variables for each target fish; and 3) digital mapping and changes detection of fish habitat potential for targeted endangered fish species to show habitat distribution and spatio-temporal changes of habitat potential over a 25-year period (from 1977 to 2002). We found that predicted suitable habitat and actual fish habitat showed high overlap, and that habitat conditions and distribution patterns of target freshwater fish had been affected by major habitat variables to target species respectively.     

Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus habitat in woods with different structure and management in southern England

Capsule Use of Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data identified suitable Willow Warbler habitat based on mean vegetation height. This habitat model provided maps of distribution and occupation of suitable habitat.

Aims To identify habitat associations in woods with different vegetation structure and management systems during a period of low Willow Warbler populations.

Methods Locations of all Willow Warblers were mapped during the breeding season in three woods of contrasting management; recent low intervention, actively coppiced woodland and high forest with clear‐fells. Height profile models of each wood were derived from airborne LiDAR. The mean vegetation height at locations with Willow Warblers and a sample from the rest of the wood were used to produce models of optimum habitat and breadth of habitat occupied in each wood. The habitat model was then used to produce maps of suitable habitat.

Results The habitat models did not differ between woods, with highest probability of Willow Warbler occurrence in mean vegetation heights of 3.7–5.3 m. Habitat of heights 6–11 m appeared less suitable, being only partly occupied. Habitat maps showed that habitat of suitable height was only occupied when it occurred as large patches; smaller patches (mostly <0.5 ha) and edges along rides and fields were not used.

Conclusion The use of LiDAR derived measures of vegetation height identified areas of suitable habitat for Willow Warblers. Willow Warblers occupied areas of low mean vegetation height either as early successional or open canopy woodland in all woods. Height‐based habitat maps can identify areas of suitable habitat within larger expanses of heterogeneous woodland and are a potentially useful tool in assessing changes in extent of what are often temporary patches of habitat.     

Improving conservation and management of the imperiled Carson Valley silverpot butterfly <Emphasis Type="Italic">Speyeria nokomis carsonensis</Emphasis> (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) based on rapid assessments of distribution,habitat, and threats

The immediacy of conservation decisions for imperiled species often requires rapid assessments of fundamental species-specific data to appropriately guide conservation resources, regulatory actions, and mitigation activities. The goal of this paper was to inform future conservation and management decisions for the imperiled Carson Valley silverspot butterfly (Speyeria nokomis carsonensis), a species that has been subject to conservation attention, yet very little is known about its distribution and habitat. Surveys for S. nokomis carsonensis and its habitat were conducted during 2004–2005. An 88% decline in the number of historic subpopulations was observed, but 30 new subpopulations were discovered. Among the 62 sites that either had populations or were considered potentially suitable habitat, three distinct habitat types were delineated: agricultural seeps, isolated springs, and riparian meadows. Riparian sites comprised 58% of all sites and little variation was observed in the proportion of occupancy across habitat types. Disturbance was substantially greater in unoccupied sites than in sites occupied by S. nokomis carsonensis. Livestock grazing was the primary threat (50% of sites) to habitat, while water diversions were a secondary threat (7 sites). The variability in habitat and threats identifies that even for highly specialized subspecies, all habitats simply cannot be considered equal candidates for inclusion in a conservation strategy for the butterfly. Adopting proactive management policies that conserve suites of sites within each habitat type and reduce grazing intensity within S. nokomis carsonensis habitats should be a priority to reduce threats and circumvent a prospective listing pursuant to the US Endangered Species Act.