Diabetes services in Yugoslavia.

The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia lies in south east Europe between the Soviet block and the free enterprise countries of Western Europe. It was originally established as a confederation of independent Balkan states after the first world war; after the second world war it became an independent federation of the socialist republics of Bosnia, Herzegovnia, Montenegro, Croatia (including Dalmatia), Slovenia, and Serbia, together with the two small autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina. In the subsequent 30 years the trend towards decentralised decision making and institutional self management has continued. Nevertheless, the federal authorities retain major control over economic decision making and policies. For example, they forbid anyone from owning more than two houses or 10 hectares of land, and no factory owner may employ more than 10 people. Capitalism in any other than this minor form is not allowed, and any businessman whose business expands must become involved in frustrating negotiations with the local government to set up a state industry. I recently visited Yugoslavia as a guest of the Institute for Diabetes, Endocrinology, and Metabolic Diseases and of the medical faculty of the University of Zagreb and visited various health care units which provide services for diabetics in Croatia. As well as Zagreb itself I visited units in Split on the Adriatic coast and at Varazdin, near the Hungarian border. Necessarily my observations are based on the diabetes services in Croatia, but although the other republics may have less developed services they follow similar principles.     

Geographical distribution of arboviruses in Yugoslavia.

Studies of arboviruses started in Yugoslavia in 1953 following the isolation of TBE virus which caused a severe epidemic that year. Until now the following viruses have been proven to circulate in the country: tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF), Bhanja (BHA), sandfly fever (SF), Tahyna (TAH), Calovo (CVO), West Nile (WN), dengue (DEN), Jug Bogdanovac (JB), and Hantaviruses. TBE virus is endemic in the north-west part of the country, causing also epidemics in cyclical intervals. Its typical clinical picture is aseptic meningitis, but severe cases with paralysis have also been described. The bite of ticks is confirmed in about 80% of cases. CCF caused a small epidemic with ten clinical cases in Macedonia in 1976. Bhanja virus was isolated on the Dalmatian island of Brac in 1977, the antibody rate there, determined by the HI method, being about 31%. The first human disease in the world was caused by the Yugoslav Bhanja virus strain. Sandfly fever is still active in the country. The Naples type is prevailing and has proved hazardous for newcomers. Hantaviruses have been studied since 1980. They caused severe epidemics (1967, 1980, 1989) and sporadic cases all over the country. Three different strains are in circulation. Further studies are needed for the rest of the above mentioned viruses to learn more about their significance in human pathology.     

Esterase D polymorphism in Serbia (Yugoslavia)

Phenotypes of human red cell esterase D (EsD) were determined in 351 unrelated adults from Serbia (Yugoslavia). The calculated allele frequencies were 0.911 for EsD1 and 0.089 for EsD2. The phenotype distribution was in good agreement with the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.     

Dietary Exposure to Lead and Cadmium in Yugoslavia

Abstract

Lead exposure still represents a matter of health concern especially in Yugoslavia. To assess the exposure of normal urban population to lead and cadmium through food, a preliminary monitoring was performed on a small group of urban population. Lead, cadmium and some essential elements (calcium, zinc, iron, copper and manganese) were analysed in collected duplicate diet samples and compared to similar population in Sweden. We found that dietary exposure to lead and cadmium is similar to other countries although Yugoslav urban population is exposed to much higher concentrations of lead in air than in cities of developed countries, due to high lead in gasoline. However, daily intake of some essential elements was significantly lower.

Also populations living around lead smelters in various parts of Yugoslavia are still exposed to elevated environmental lead and cadmium levels. To assess the exposure of the population living in this area, a cumulative long-term exposure to lead was determined by measuring lead in deciduous teeth. Concentrations of lead and cadmium in vegetables, soil and meals from the same region were also analysed. Values obtained for lead and cadmium in food products grown in exposed and control area were found to be related to respective concentrations of these elements in soil as well as to the distance from the smelter. Meals prepared in this region show the same trend, revealing very high intake particularly of lead.

The influence of nutritional factors, i.e. dietary calcium on lead metabolism, was also studied. Blood lead concentration was determined in two groups of peasant women living in two regions with different dietary calcium intake. Lower blood lead values were found in the higher dietary calcium intake region.     

A strain of Holmes' ribgrass virus occurring in Yugoslavia

A virus having 300 nm long rod-shaped particles was isolated fromPlantago media L. in Yugoslavia. The virus was transmitted to 15 species of host plants the symptoms of which are described in detail. The symptoms corresponded to those that appeared after infection by the original Holmes' ribgrass virus (HRV). The investigated virus was compared both with the common strain of tobacco mosaic and the original Holmes' ribgrass viruses by means of serological tests. The agar double-diffusion tests showed that it is closely related to HRV and remotely related to the common strain of TMV. On the basis of these results we concluded that this virus represented a strain of the HRV. The investigations of the cell inclusions showed that our virus produced rounded plates instead of hexagonal prisms. Electron micrographs of ultrathin sectioned material demonstrated that these plates were formed by virus particles lying perpendicularly to the layers of the plates. The presence of plates also points to the fact that the investigated virus belongs to the HRV.     

B chromosome polymorphism in populations of Apodemus flavicollis in Yugoslavia

Four populations of yellow necked mice Apodemus flavicollis were karyologically studied for the presence of B chromosomes. One or two B chromosomes were found in all populations except one, in frequencies which differ significantly. The Bs cannot be accurately distinguished from chromosomes of normal complement even after application of differential staining.     

A strain of radish mosaic virus occurring in turnip in Yugoslavia

Fields of turnip (Brassica rapa L. var. rapa) in Yugoslavia often contained plants infected with radish mosaic virus (RaMV). Yugoslav isolates resemble the type strain in host range, symptoms, physical properties, particle morphology and flea-beetle transmission and are serologically closely related to the type strain, but did not infect radish and are designated as the European strain. Light microscopy of infected turnip and some other cruciferous species revealed the characteristic inclusion bodies in the cytoplasm.     

Human red cell glutamic-pyruvic transaminase polymorphism in Serbia, Yugoslavia

The polymorphism of red cell glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (GPT) was studied in 277 unrelated voluntary blood donors from the population of Serbia (Yugoslavia). The following phenotype frequencies were observed: GPT 1 0.309, GPT 2-1 0.454 and GPT 2 0.206, while gene frequencies were: GPT1 0.556 and GPT2 0.454.     

Human red cell adenylate kinase polymorphism in Srbija, Yugoslavia

Red cell adenylate kinase (AK) phenotypes were determined in 283 unrelated adults in Srbija (Yugoslavia). The gene frequencies observed were: AK1 0.961 and AK2 0.039. The adenylate kinase activity was estimated in all haemolysates; no significant differences were found between individuals of different phenotypes.     

Ethnic intolerance and ethnic conflict in the dissolution of Yugoslavia

The causal link between ethnic intolerance and ethnic conflict is tested using four highly comparable data sets from Croatia that span the time before and after the violent dissolution of Yugoslavia: 1984–5, 1989–90, 1996 and 2003. Though most approaches to ethnic conflict posit a social-psychological dimension critical to violent encounters, our analysis provides an unprecedented empirical examination that dispels the commonly held view that ethnic hatred, hostility, and intolerance are the cause of ethnic conflict. After explaining the events and the shifting social, political and economic landscape that precipitated the war, we examine demographic, social structural and attitudinal changes between 1985 and 2003 that are associated with variation in ethnic intolerance, giving special attention to the connection between religiosity and intolerance. Prior to the war people were slow to translate public tensions into personal animosities. We find strong support for concluding that the events of the war itself and especially elite manipulation of public images of these events, are strongly implicated in rising intolerance during the war, and that the war's residual effect has been slow to dissipate.     

Polymorphism of red cell glyoxalase I in Serbia, Yugoslavia

Red cell glyoxalase I (GLO) phenotypes were determined in 258 unrelated adults from the population of Serbia (Yugoslavia). The GLO1 gene frequency was estimated to be 0.384.     

Occurrence of Cladocera (Crustacea) in subterranean waters in Yugoslavia

Contrary to some localities in France and Spain, Cladocera occur in hypogean waters in Yugoslavia very sporadically. Beside the stygobitic species, Alona hercegovinae from caves and Alona smirnovi from interstitial waters, particularly some other Chydoridae seem to be suited for hypogean life. Chydorus sphaericus, reputed as one of the most euryoecious cladocerans, occurs also the deepest in interstitial waters as well as in caves. Other species, found in hypogean waters are Simocephalus vetulus, Ilyocryptus sordidus, Eurycercus lamellatus, Chydorus ovalis, Leydigia leydigi, Acroperus harpae and Biapertura affnis.     

An outbreak of acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis in Yugoslavia in 1973.

An outbreak of approximately 200 cases of acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis is described in Prekmurje, a northern province in Yugoslavia. The epidemic was caused by enterovirus type 70, serologically identical with the causative agents of similar outbreaks in London and Japan. The origin of the outbreak could not be elucidated but a link was seen between this case and a small outbreak in Veenendaal in the Netherlands.