Child-resistant containers: are we kidding ourselves?

A 20-month-old child was accidentally poisoned after biting through the bottom of a medicine container and ingesting the tablets inside. Consequently a study was carried out to determine the force required to fracture 20 randomly selected 25 and 32 ml polystyrene containers to see whether this exceeded the bite force of a child''s jaw. Tests were performed at displacement rates of 0.5 and 10 cm/min. All the containers failed at well below the bite force recorded for children, which is 392 N. All containers must conform to a British Standards test that requires that they withstand a force of only 35 N. Clearly this is not enough to safeguard small children. The use of polystyrene containers should be scrutinised closely, as the case of accidental poisoning reported may not be unique.     

Deaths of two hospital inpatients poisoned by pilocarpine.

Two inpatients of one hospital ward died. Pilocarpine poisoning was suspected and subsequently confirmed by analysis of urine. The circumstantial evidence strongly suggested that the food given to the patients in the ward had been adulterated. Police inquiries failed to elicit any further information, and open verdicts were returned at the inquest. Precautions taken subsequently to prevent a similar event--sealing food containers and trolleys--entailed a capital cost of 43,000 pounds. In addition, food stores were kept locked and tighter control kept on drugs stored in ward pharmacies.     

Changing pattern of poisoning in children in Newcastle, 1974-81.

All children aged under 15 years admitted to hospital in Newcastle upon Tyne between 1974 and 1981 with a diagnosis of poisoning were studied. After the introduction in 1976 of child resistant containers for salicylates and paracetamol, salicylate poisonings fell dramatically. The other most important medicines to cause poisoning in young children were tricyclic antidepressants, benzodiazapines, Lomotil (diphenoxylate and atropine), and iron preparations; these should also be packaged in child resistant containers by regulation. Few children had symptoms after poisoning with household products, but bleach, turpentine, and paraffin might also be packaged in child resistant containers. The numbers of adolescent girls admitted after deliberate self poisoning and of teenage boys admitted after ingestion of alcohol increased over the study period.     

Effects of storage conditions of Moringa oleifera seeds on its performance in coagulation

Moringa oleifera is a plant whose seeds have coagulation properties for treating water and wastewater. In this study the coagulation efficiency of Moringa oleifera kept in different storage conditions were studied. The Moringa oleifera seeds were stored at different conditions and durations; open container and closed container at room temperature (28 degrees C) and refrigerator (3 degrees C) for durations of 1, 3 and 5 months. Comparison between turbidity removal efficiency of Moringa oleifera kept in refrigerator and room temperature revealed that there was no significant difference between them. The Moringa oleifera kept in refrigerator and room temperature for one month showed higher turbidity removal efficiency, compared to those kept for 3 and 5 months, at both containers. The coagulation efficiency of Moringa oleifera was found to be dependent on initial turbidity of water samples. Highest turbidity removals were obtained for water with very high initial turbidity. In summary coagulation efficiency of Moringa oleifera was found independent of storage temperature and container, however coagulation efficiency of Moringa oleifera decreased as storage duration increased. In addition, Moringa oleifera can be used as a potential coagulant especially for very high turbidity water.     

Comparison of 12 different containers for dispensing anti-inflammatory drugs.

Twelve containers manufactured by 10 pharmaceutical companies for dispensing anti-inflammatory drugs, 10 of which are currently in use in the United Kingdom, have been compared in 99 patients with arthritis of the hands. Patients were given the containers in random order and were asked to open them, extract the tablets, and close them. Patients were questioned on ease of handling at each stage and were then timed on reopening and closing each container. Finally, the patients were asked which container was the best and which was the worst. There was a wide variation in popularity of containers. One was judged outstanding on almost every attribute, and four were preferred over the others on most attributes. A successful container for arthritic hands is likely to have a sharply angulated or "wing" cap placed on a tall slim base that is also angulated. Flip off tops, tops with long threads requiring many turns, very small containers, and glass were regarded as unfavourable. Manufacturers should take note of these findings and, where necessary, consider redesigning the containers.     

Effect Of Sodium Hexanitrocobaltate (III) Decomposition On Its Staining Of Intracellular Potassium Ions

The effect was examined of the chemical decomposition of the potassium stain, sodium hexanitrocobaltate (III) (SHC), on its ability to produce stain granules of consistent size that could be used to estimate the K⁺ contents of stomafal guard cells. Stomata in detached epidermis from leaves of Vicia faba (fava bean) were stimulated to accumulate K⁺ by treating them with fusicoccin. Stomatal apertures and the fraction of guard cell area covered by K⁺ precipitate granules (K⁺ score) were measured by digitizing photographic enlargements, and K* scores were correlated with the age of stain that had been stored either in open or closed containers. The ability of stain aged in open containers to produce consistent fractional cell coverage was compared to 1) the ability of identically treated stain to precipitate K⁺ from solutions of KCl, and to 2) the kinetics of decomposition of SHC. It was found that the fractional coverage of guard cells of stomata opened to the same apertures decreased with a first order rate constant of 2.3 × 10^-8/sec. The mass of precipitate formed by treatment of KCl solutions was unchanged for 2 hr after initial preparation of the SHC, and decreased thereafter with a first order rate constant of 1.0 × 10^-5/sec. When stored in tightly sealed containers, nearly 100 hr were required for an occasionally opened bottle of SHC to decay to the same efficacy as a solution left open to the air for 8 hr.     

Differences in preservation of canine chilled semen using different transport containers

In the present study, the effect of three different containers in the preservation of dog chilled semen, during 24, 48 and 72h was evaluated. Weekly sperm pools of different dogs were obtained, during 10 consecutive weeks. Semen samples were diluted in egg-yolk-Tris-fructose extender and stored in a Styrofoam box, a common Thermos flask and an Equitainer. Progressive motility, morphology and sperm membrane integrity were examined in semen aliquots taken daily from each container during the 3 days of storage. Additionally, integrity of the acrosome and sperm plasma membranes, determined by PI/Fitc-PSA staining was assessed at 48 and 72h of storage. At 24h no differences were observed between the three containers for the evaluated parameters. At 48h samples kept in the Equitainer presented a higher progressive motility than samples kept in the Thermos. At 72h, progressive motility was higher in the Equitainer than in the other two containers. Only samples kept in the Equitainer maintained similar levels of progressive motility between 24 and 72h. Membrane integrity assessed by eosin-nigrosin deteriorated over the 72h period, whereas functional membrane integrity determined by the hypoosmotic swelling test was independently affected by type of container (the Equitainer) kept a higher percentage of sperm cells with intact membrane) and time of storage (a decrease of membrane integrity between 24 to 72h). Staining with PI-Fitc-PSA allowed the detection of differences between containers but not between the two studied storage periods (48 and 72h). The results indicated that the use of the Equitainer is preferable when transporting chilled dog semen for more than 48h.     

Effect of sodium hexanitrocobaltate (III) decomposition on its staining of intracellular potassium ions.

The effect was examined of the chemical decomposition of the potassium stain sodium hexanitrocobaltate (III) (SHC), on its ability to produce stain granules of consistent size that could be used to estimate the K+ contents of stomatal guard cells. Stomata in detached epidermis from leaves of Vicia faba (fava bean) were stimulated to accumulate K+ by treating them with fusicoccin. Stomatal apertures and the fraction of guard cell area covered by K+ precipitate granules (K+ score) were measured by digitizing photographic enlargements, and K+ scores were correlated with the age of stain that had been stored either in open or closed containers. The ability of stain aged in open containers to produce consistent fractional cell coverage was compared to 1) the ability of identically treated stain to precipitate K+ from solutions of KCI, and to 2) the kinetics of decomposition of SHC. It was found that the fractional coverage of guard cells of stomata opened to the same apertures decreased with a first order rate constant of 2.3 x 10(-5)/sec. The mass of precipitate formed by treatment of KCl solutions was unchanged for 2 hr after initial preparation of the SHC, and decreased thereafter with a first order rate constant of 1.0 x 10(-5)/sec. When stored in tightly sealed containers, nearly 100 hr were required for an occasionally opened bottle of SHC to decay to the same efficacy as a solution left open to the air for 8 hr.     

The response of planktonic and microbenthic algal assemblages to nutrient enrichment in shallow coastal waters,southwest Sweden

Field and laboratory nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) enrichment experiments were performed using natural phytoplankton and microphytobenthic assemblages from the brackish water Öresund, S.W. Sweden. The response of algae from a low-nutrient area (Falsterbo Canal) was compared to that of algae from a polluted, nutrient-rich area (Lomma Bay).The biomass (measured as chlorophyll a) of both phytoplankton and microphytobenthos from the Falsterbo Canal increased after the addition of nitrogen. Phytoplankton growth was stimulated by the addition of phosphorus to the nitrogen-rich water of the polluted Lomma Bay. Sediment chlorophyll a showed no significant increase after the addition of nutrients in the Lomma Bay. In containers without sediment, phytoplankton uptake was calculated to account for ≈ 90% of the disappearance of inorganic fixed nitrogen from the water. In the sediment containers the microphytobenthos was estimated to account for ≈20% of the nitrogen uptake. The rest was presumably lost mainly through denitrification.When containers with microphytobenthos from Lomma Bay were kept in the dark, phosphorus was released at a rate of up to ≈ 180 μM · m^?2 · day^?1. We suggest that by producing oxygen microbenthic algae keep the sediment surface oxygenated thereby decreasing phosphorus transport from the sediment to the overlying water.     

Intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in children: a qualitative study of community perceptions and recommendations in Burkina Faso and Mali

Background

Intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in children (IPTc) is a highly efficacious method of malaria control where malaria transmission is highly seasonal. However, no studies published to date have examined community perceptions of IPTc.

Methods

A qualitative study was undertaken in parallel with a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of IPTc conducted in Mali and Burkina Faso in 2008–2009 to assess community perceptions of and recommendations for IPTc. Caregivers and community health workers (CHWs) were purposively sampled. Seventy-two in-depth individual interviews and 23 focus group discussions were conducted.

Findings

Widespread perceptions of health benefits for children led to enthusiasm for the trial and for IPTc specifically. Trust in and respect for those providing the tablets and a sense of obligation to the community to participate in sanctioned activities favoured initial adoption. IPTc fits in well with existing understandings of childhood illness. Participants did not express concerns about the specific drugs used for IPTc or about providing tablets to children without symptoms of malaria. There was no evidence that IPTc was perceived as a substitute for bed net usage, nor did it inhibit care seeking. Participants recommended that distribution be “closer to the population”, but expressed concern over caregivers'' ability to administer tablets at home.

Conclusions

The trial context mediated perceptions of IPTc. Nonetheless, the results indicate that community perceptions of IPTc in the settings studied were largely favourable and that the delivery strategy rather than the tablets themselves presented the main areas of concern for caregivers and CHWs. The study identifies a number of key questions to consider in planning an IPTc distribution strategy. Single-dose formulations could increase the success of IPTc implementation, as could integration of IPTc within a package of activities, such as bed net distribution and free curative care, for which demand is already high.     

Effect of environmental information richness during early development of bream (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Abramis brama</Emphasis>; Cyprinidae) upon feeding and defensive behavior of its yearlings

The feeding behavior of bream (Abramis brama) yearlings kept before the experiment (four months post hatch) under different conditions has been studied. Three variants of conditions, varied in their levels of informational richness, were modeled for keeping young fish prior to the experiments: 1—minimal richness, mimicking conditions of standard commercial hatchery containers; 2—the conditions enriched by a water current; 3—the conditions enriched by modeled impact of predation and feeding by live food. In the following experiments, the conditions were similar for all three groups. It was revealed that the fish grown under the conditions of Variant 1 had a lower learning ability, higher extent of schooling behavior, and lower efficiencies of feeding and defensive behaviors. Similar traits were described in literature as being typical for the fish grown at standard fish farms. The Variant 2 fish had the shortest adaptation period and most efficient feeding behavior but were lacking the skills of defensive behavior. The fish from the 3rd variant had a medium duration of adaptation period and efficient feeding behavior and possessed well-developed skills of defensive behavior. The results have shown that the level of environmental information richness during fish early life stages plays a crucial role in further development of the most important adaptive forms of behavior. Maintaining the young fish in containers with water current facilitates swimming performance and development of feeding behavior. However, such fish, in fact, lack the skills of defensive behavior.     

Hand Sanitiser Provision for Reducing Illness Absences in Primary School Children: A Cluster Randomised Trial

Background

The potential for transmission of infectious diseases offered by the school environment are likely to be an important contributor to the rates of infectious disease experienced by children. This study aimed to test whether the addition of hand sanitiser in primary school classrooms compared with usual hand hygiene would reduce illness absences in primary school children in New Zealand.

Methods and Findings

This parallel-group cluster randomised trial took place in 68 primary schools, where schools were allocated using restricted randomisation (1∶1 ratio) to the intervention or control group. All children (aged 5 to 11 y) in attendance at participating schools received an in-class hand hygiene education session. Schools in the intervention group were provided with alcohol-based hand sanitiser dispensers in classrooms for the winter school terms (27 April to 25 September 2009). Control schools received only the hand hygiene education session. The primary outcome was the number of absence episodes due to any illness among 2,443 follow-up children whose caregivers were telephoned after each absence from school. Secondary outcomes measured among follow-up children were the number of absence episodes due to specific illness (respiratory or gastrointestinal), length of illness and illness absence episodes, and number of episodes where at least one other member of the household became ill subsequently (child or adult). We also examined whether provision of sanitiser was associated with experience of a skin reaction. The number of absences for any reason and the length of the absence episode were measured in all primary school children enrolled at the schools. Children, school administrative staff, and the school liaison research assistants were not blind to group allocation. Outcome assessors of follow-up children were blind to group allocation. Of the 1,301 and 1,142 follow-up children in the hand sanitiser and control groups, respectively, the rate of absence episodes due to illness per 100 child-days was similar (1.21 and 1.16, respectively, incidence rate ratio 1.06, 95% CI 0.94 to 1.18). The provision of an alcohol-based hand sanitiser dispenser in classrooms was not effective in reducing rates of absence episodes due to respiratory or gastrointestinal illness, the length of illness or illness absence episodes, or the rate of subsequent infection for other members of the household in these children. The percentage of children experiencing a skin reaction was similar (10.4% hand sanitiser versus 10.3% control, risk ratio 1.01, 95% CI 0.78 to 1.30). The rate or length of absence episodes for any reason measured for all children also did not differ between groups. Limitations of the study include that the study was conducted during an influenza pandemic, with associated public health messaging about hand hygiene, which may have increased hand hygiene among all children and thereby reduced any additional effectiveness of sanitiser provision. We did not quite achieve the planned sample size of 1,350 follow-up children per group, although we still obtained precise estimates of the intervention effects. Also, it is possible that follow-up children were healthier than non-participating eligible children, with therefore less to gain from improved hand hygiene. However, lack of effectiveness of hand sanitiser provision on the rate of absences among all children suggests that this may not be the explanation.

Conclusions

The provision of hand sanitiser in addition to usual hand hygiene in primary schools in New Zealand did not prevent disease of severity sufficient to cause school absence.

Trial registration

Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12609000478213 Please see later in the article for the Editors'' Summary     

Novel Strategy to Fabricate Floating Drug Delivery System Based on Sublimation Technique

The present study aims to develop floating drug delivery system by sublimation of ammonium carbonate (AMC). The core tablets contain a model drug, hydrochlorothiazide, and various levels (i.e., 0–50% w/w) of AMC. The tablets were then coated with different amounts of the polyacrylate polymers (i.e., Eudragit® RL100, Eudragit® RS100, and the mixture of Eudragit® RL100 and Eudragit® RS100 at 1:1 ratio). The coated tablets were kept at ambient temperature (25°C) or cured at 70°C for 12 h before further investigation. The floating and drug release behaviors of the tablets were performed in simulated gastric fluid USP without pepsin at 37°C. The results showed that high amount of AMC induced the floating of the tablets. The coated tablets containing 40 and 50% AMC floated longer than 8 h with a time-to-float of about 3 min. The sublimation of AMC from the core tablets decreased the density of system, causing floating of the tablets. The tablets coated with Eudragit® RL100 floated at a faster rate than those of Eudragit® RS100. Even the coating level of polymer did not influence the time-to-float and floating time of coated tablets containing the same amount of AMC, the drug release from the tablets coated with higher coating level of polymer showed slower drug release. The results suggested that the sublimation technique using AMC is promising for the development of floating drug delivery system.     

Effects of transport container and ambient storage temperature on motion characteristics of equine spermatozoa

This study was conducted to compare the cooling rates and storage temperatures within equine semen transport containers exposed to different ambient temperatures, and to evaluate the ability of these containers to preserve spermatozoal motility following 24 h of storage under these conditions. In Experiment 1, nonfat dried milk solids, glucose, sucrose, equine semen extender was divided into seven 40-mL aliquots and loaded into seven different semen transport containers: Equitainer I, Equitainer II, Equitainer III, ExpectaFoal, Bio-Flite, Lane STS, and Equine Express. After containers were loaded, they were subjected to one of three ambient storage temperatures: 1) 22 degrees C for 72 h, 2) -20 degrees C for 6 h followed by 22 degrees C for 66 h, or 3) 37 degrees C for 72 h. Cooling rates and storage temperatures of semen extender in each container were monitored with thermocouples and a chart recorder. In Experiment 2, semen from each of three stallions (3 ejaculates per stallion) was diluted to 25 x 10(6) spermatozoa/mL with semen extender, divided into 40 mL aliquots and loaded into transport containers as in Experiment I. Containers were subjected to one of three ambient storage conditions: 1) 22 degrees C for 24 h, 2) -20 degrees C for 6 h, followed by 22 degrees C for 18 h, or 3) 37 degrees C for 24 h. After 24 h of storage, spermatozoal motion characteristics (percentage of motile spermatozoa; MOT, percentage of progressively motile spermatozoa; PMOT, and mean curvilinear velocity; VCL) were evaluated using a computerized spermatozoal motion analyzer. Significant interactions were detected among storage conditions and semen transport containers for the majority of the temperature endpoints measured. When exposed to temporary ambient freezing conditions, the lowest temperatures attained by samples in containers ranged from -2.8 to 0.8 degrees C. Lowest temperature samples attained was not correlated (P > 0.05) with spermatozoal motility under any ambient condition. However, time below 4 degrees C was highly correlated (P < 0.05) with a reduction in spermatozoal motility. Mean cooling rates from 20 degrees C to 8 degrees C did not correlate with spermatozoal motility, except when containers were exposed to temporary freezing conditions. No container cooled samples below 6 degrees C in 22 degrees C or 37 degrees C environments except for the ExpectaFoal, in which samples fell below 4 degrees C under all ambient conditions. Ambient temperature affected MOT, PMOT and VCL of semen stored in all containers (P < 0.05) except for the Equitainer II in which motion characteristics remained high and were similar among all ambient temperatures (P > 0.05). Results suggest that stallion semen may be able to tolerate a wider range of cooling rates and storage temperatures than previously considered safe.     

Effects of under- and overcrowding on exploratory behavior in the elevated plus-maze

The present work investigated whether the number of rats housed in a cage affects exploration of an elevated plus-maze. Male Wistar-derived rats were kept 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, or 24 to same size cages either for 1 or 14 days and tested in the elevated plus-maze. Rats kept 6 to a cage were arbitrarily considered controls because this is the housing condition adopted in many laboratories, ours included. In comparison to controls, 1-day housed rats kept 1, 2, 16, and 24 to a cage decreased the percentage of entries into the open arms. Similar decreases were also found in the time spent in the open arms, the only exception being the group with rats kept 16 to a cage which failed to show significant differences from the control group. Fourteen-day housed rats kept 1, 2, 16, or 24 to a cage decreased the percentage of entries and time spent in the open arms. We found plus-maze exploration to be similar in groups in which rats were kept from 4 to 12 to a cage. The present data indicate that anxiogenic effects resulting from under- and overcrowding should be taken into consideration in behavioral studies.     

Testing the Goodness of Supplementary Feeding to Enhance Population Viability in an Endangered Vulture

Background

Human-predator conflicts are directly or indirectly threatening many species with extinction. Thus, biologists are urged to find simple solutions to complex situations while avoiding unforeseen conservation outcomes. The provision of supplementary food at artificial feeding sites (AFS) is frequently used in the conservation of scavenger bird populations currently suffering from indirect poisoning, although no scientific studies on its effectiveness have been conducted.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We used a long-term data set of 95 individually marked birds from the largest European core of the endangered bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) to test the long-term effects of specific AFS for bearded vultures on their survival rates (by CMR models) and population dynamics (by Monte Carlo simulations) in an area where fatalities derived from illegal poisoning and the use of other toxics like veterinary drugs have increased over the last several years. Our data support the positive relationship between the use of AFS and survival. However, contrary to theoretical predictions (e.g. high and more stable adult survival among long-lived species), the use of AFS increased only survival of pre-adults. Moreover, AFS buffered the effects of illegal poisoning on this age-class, while adult survival decreased over years. Our simulations predicted a maximum value of extinction probability over a time horizon of 50 years. Population projections run with survival rates expected in scenarios without poisoning predicted the situation of least conservation concern, while including only AFS can maintain a large floater surplus that may delay population decline but fails to reduce poisoning risk among adults.

Conclusions/Significance

Although AFS are not effective to save bearded vultures from an expected population decline, they delay population extinction and can be a useful tool for prolonging population viability while combating illegal and indirect poisoning. The eradication of different sources of poisoning is of top priority to ensure the long-term viability of this and many other species.     

HBO治疗对急性CO中毒后海马不同分区神经细胞凋亡的作用研究

目的:通过研究高压氧(HBO)治疗急性CO中毒大鼠海马不同分区神经细胞凋亡情况,探讨HBO治疗急性CO中毒的应用及机理。方法:利用雄性SD大鼠,建立急性CO中毒模型。应用免疫组织化学以及免疫荧光的方法,测定在染毒和CO中毒HBO治疗后1 d、3 d、7 d、14 d和21d Bcl-2、caspase-3、Neu N、BAX和MMP-9的表达水平的变化。结果:海马CA3区神经细胞对急性CO中毒与HBO治疗比CA1和CA2区更加敏感;急性CO中毒后,海马各区神经细胞凋亡程度随1 d、3 d、7 d、14 d和21 d时间延长而加重;BAX、caspase-3和Bcl-2等凋亡相关因子的表达水平与MMP-9的变化趋势一致:在1d开始增多,3d达到最大值,7d开始减少,14 d与21 d与正常组类似;CO中毒大鼠进行HBO治疗后,海马各区MMP-9、BAX、caspase-3和Bcl-2的表达水平明显降低;且HBO治疗7 d后,海马各区这些凋亡相关因子的表达降低最为明显。结论:海马CA3区神经细胞对急性CO中毒及HBO治疗敏感;海马神经细胞凋亡可能与神经细胞表达MMP-9降解神经细胞周围的基质,表达BAX、caspase-3和Bcl-2等凋亡相关因子促进凋亡发生有关;HBO治疗可降低MMP-9以及BAX、caspase-3和Bcl-2等凋亡因子的表达,抑制神经细胞的凋亡;HBO治疗7d对神经细胞凋亡的抑制作用最明显。     

Application of synthetic herbivore‐induced plant volatiles causes increased parasitism of herbivores in the field

We previously reported that Cotesia vestalis (Hymenoptera, Braconidae), a parasitoid of diamondback moth (DBM) (Plutella xylostella; Lepidoptera, Plutellidae) larvae, was attracted to volatiles from crucifer plants infested by moth larvae kept in a desktop acrylic box, and that a blend of four DBM‐induced plant volatiles was responsible for this attraction. In this study, using a specially designed dispenser to release the four compounds, we demonstrated that the wasp was attracted to intact komatsuna plants (Brassica rapa var. perviridis). The experiments were performed in a climate‐controlled room, which was approximately 1000 times larger than the acrylic box used previously. Similarly, using the dispenser in the field, C. vestalis females were attracted to intact komatsuna plants with the dispenser from a distance of three metres. We also examined the effect of the volatile blend on the incidence of parasitism of DBM larvae in the field. Three small containers containing DBM‐infested komatsuna plants with dispensers, and three control containers containing only infested plants (control) were arranged in two lines running perpendicular to a komatsuna field in which both DBM larvae and C. vestalis populations were maintained, at distances of 12, 30 and 70 m. The results showed that the incidence of DBM parasitism was significantly higher in containers containing dispensers than in the control containers, suggesting that the blend could potentially be applied to DBM control in agroecosystems.     

Hierarchical complexity of combinatorial manipulation in capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella)

The purpose of this study was to examine the hierarchical complexity of combinatorial manipulation in capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Two experiments were conducted. In Experiment 1 capuchins were presented with an apparatus designed to accommodate the use of probing tools. In Experiment 2 the same capuchins were presented with sets of nesting containers. Five of the ten subjects used probing tools and seven subjects placed objects in the containers. The capuchins' behavior reflected three hierarchically organized combinatorial patterns displayed by chimpanzees and human infants. Although the capuchins sometimes displayed the two more complex patterns (“pot” and “subassembly”), their combinatorial behavior was dominated by the simplest pattern (“pairing”). In this regard capuchins may not attain the same grammar of manipulative action that has been reported for chimpanzees and young human children. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.