A karyological study of Allium rouyi Gautier (Liliaceae), a recently rediscovered endemic species from the south of Spain

A population of Allium rouyi, previously considered an extinct species, has recently been rediscovered. From this sample, the somatic chromosome number and detailed chromosome morphology is presented. Using the karyological data, relationships between A. rouyi and allied species are discussed.     

A karyological study of Allium rouyi Gautier (Liliaceae), a recently rediscovered endemic species from the south of Spain

A population of Allium rouyi, previously considered an extinct species, has recently been rediscovered. From this sample, the somatic chromosome number and detailed chromosome morphology is presented. Using the karyological data, relationships between A. rouyi and allied species are discussed.     

Taxonomy and phylogenetic position of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phyllactinia takamatsui</Emphasis>, a newly described powdery mildew on cotoneaster,based on molecular and morphological data

The newly recognised powdery mildew species Phyllactinia takamatsui on Cotoneaster nummularius (Rosaceae) is described and illustrated. This species, collected in Kerman Province, Iran, is well characterised by its conidial morphology and rDNA ITS sequences clearly different from allied species. Conidia are broadly ellipsoid to subcylindrical, i.e. they are not clavate-spathuliform as in most Phyllactinia species. The rDNA ITS sequence analysis showed that this species is closely allied to other species described on hosts belonging to Rosaceae, such as Ph. mali and Ph. pyri-serotinae. The ITS sequence of P. takamatsui was 92 to 94 % similar to that of the closest known relatives. The new species is described in detail, illustrated and compared with other similar taxa.     

TEMPORAL VARIATION IN POPULATIONS OF THE MARINE ISOPOD EXCIROLANA: HOW STABLE ARE GENE FREQUENCIES AND MORPHOLOGY?

Excirolana braziliensis is a dioecious marine isopod that lives in the high intertidal zone on both sides of tropical America. It lacks a dispersal phase and displays a remarkable degree of genetic divergence even between localities less than 1 km apart. Nine populations of this nominal species from both sides of the Isthmus of Panama and one population of the closely allied species, Excirolana chamensis, from the eastern Pacific were studied for 2 yr for allozymic temporal variation in 13 loci and for 3 to 4 yr for morphological variation in nine characters. The genetic and morphological constitution of 9 out of 10 populations remained stable. Allele frequencies at two loci and overall morphology in a tenth beach occupied by E. braziliensis changed drastically and significantly between 1986 and 1988. The change in gene frequency is too great to explain by genetic drift occurring during a maximum of 14 generations regardless of assumed effective population size; drift is also unlikely to have caused observed changes in morphology. Selective survival of a previously rare genotype is more plausible but still not probable. The most credible explanation is that the resident population at this locality became extinct and that the beach was recolonized by immigrants from another locality. Such infrequent episodes of extinction and recolonization from a single source may account for the large amount of genetic divergence between local populations of E. braziliensis. However, the low probability of large temporal genetic change even in a species such as this, in which gene flow between local demes is limited and generation time is short, suggests that a single sample through time is usually adequate for reconstructing the genetic history of populations.     

Molecular phylogeny of the antitropical genus Pseudolabrus (Perciformes: Labridae): evidence for a Southern Hemisphere origin

The genus Pseudolabrus comprises 11 species of marine nearshore fishes which are antitropically distributed: two species occur in East Asia, the remaining nine species being distributed in the Southern Hemisphere, mainly in the temperate Pacific. The distributions of their closely allied genera, collectively called "pseudolabrines" are, however, restricted to the Australia-New Zealand region. The molecular phylogeny of six of the 11 Pseudolabrus species from both Hemispheres and four of the five other pseudolabrine genera was reconstructed from nucleotide sequence data from mitochondrial DNA 12S rRNA, tRNAVal, and 16S rRNA genes. Both parsimony and Bayesian analyses were performed. Results are not consistent with a previous phylogenetic hypothesis based on osteological data, particularly in the relationship between Pseudolabrus and Notolabrus, indicating a probable need for reviewing the status of Notolabrus (or the delimitations of both Pseudolabrus and Notolabrus). The two Northern Hemisphere species of Pseudolabrus were monophyletic and nested deep into the clade of the Southern Hemisphere pseudolabrines, which indicates that both pseudolabrines and Pseudolabrus originated in the Southern Hemisphere. A dispersal rather than vicariance explanation for the antitropical distribution of Pseudolabrus is more parsimonious given the number of dispersal events, extinctions, and evolutionary adaptations required under the phylogeny. Based on molecular clock calibrations, the transequatorial divergence was suggested to be early to mid Pliocene at the earliest.     

A new species of freshwater snail Tchangmargarya (Gastropoda: Viviparidae) endemic to a vanished small lake in Yunnan,China

Habitat loss poses a grave threat to endemic species with narrow distributions. Some species become extinct even before scientific identification due to habitat destruction. Here, a probable example is reported based on some recent and subfossil shells from an almost disappeared wetland lake in Yunnan Province, China. A new ornamented freshwater snail species, Tchangmargarya ziyi n. sp., is recognised and described based on morphological comparison with the other Tchangmargarya species. The subfossil specimens of the new species show a great similarity to Tchangmargrya yangtsunghaiensis (Tchang & Tsi, 1949), indicating their potentially close relationship. The discovery of the new species demonstrates that the plateau lakes of Yunnan, even the small ones, have a high biodiversity and endemism. Furthermore, it enriches the knowledge of the distribution of Tchangmargarya and provides further evidence that the Liangwang Mountains are a significant biogeographic barrier to three endemic viviparid genera (Margarya, Anularya and Tchangmargarya) of Yunnan. Since the only known habitat of this species has been mostly landfilled due to the construction of a golf course and villas, this species possibly has already gone extinct. In order to implement conservation measures more efficiently, more comprehensive surveys should be conducted in all plateau lakes of Yunnan, including those that might seem insignificant.     

重庆武隆天生桥种子植物区系研究

重庆武隆天生桥是国家4A级风景名胜区,处于云贵高原大娄山褶皱带与武陵山系的过渡地带。对该区植物从科、属和种的分布区类型进行了统计分析,另外将该区区系特征与其他几个地区进行了对比分析。结果表明：①该区内有种子植物115科、475属、1292种。②大、中属共有37属,仅占总属数的7．79％,但所含种数达389种,占总种数的30．11％。说明本植物区系中优势属较为明显。③从种子植物科属分布区类型所占比例来看,该地区区系性质以热带成分占优势,其中热带分布属214属,占总属数的50．71％,这一特点与当地的环境特点是密切相关的。④区系分析表明,温带分布类型也占相当优势,有温带分布属203属,占总属数的48．10％,说明该地区区系性质具有热带到温带过渡的性质。⑤中国特有种丰富,共有881种,占总种数的68．83％。⑨经对比分析和聚类分析表明：该区与相距较远地区属的相似性系数较低,表明区系上联系较为疏远;而与邻近的几个地区属的相似性系数较高,特别与西南地区植物区系联系紧密。     

The Role of DNA Barcodes in Understanding and Conservation of Mammal Diversity in Southeast Asia

Background

Southeast Asia is recognized as a region of very high biodiversity, much of which is currently at risk due to habitat loss and other threats. However, many aspects of this diversity, even for relatively well-known groups such as mammals, are poorly known, limiting ability to develop conservation plans. This study examines the value of DNA barcodes, sequences of the mitochondrial COI gene, to enhance understanding of mammalian diversity in the region and hence to aid conservation planning.

Methodology and Principal Findings

DNA barcodes were obtained from nearly 1900 specimens representing 165 recognized species of bats. All morphologically or acoustically distinct species, based on classical taxonomy, could be discriminated with DNA barcodes except four closely allied species pairs. Many currently recognized species contained multiple barcode lineages, often with deep divergence suggesting unrecognized species. In addition, most widespread species showed substantial genetic differentiation across their distributions. Our results suggest that mammal species richness within the region may be underestimated by at least 50%, and there are higher levels of endemism and greater intra-specific population structure than previously recognized.

Conclusions

DNA barcodes can aid conservation and research by assisting field workers in identifying species, by helping taxonomists determine species groups needing more detailed analysis, and by facilitating the recognition of the appropriate units and scales for conservation planning.     

Placing cryptic,recently extinct,or hypothesized taxa into an ultrametric phylogeny using continuous character data: A case study with the lizard Anolis roosevelti

In recent years, enormous effort and investment has been put into assembling the tree of life: a phylogenetic history for all species on Earth. Overwhelmingly, this progress toward building an ever increasingly complete phylogeny of living things has been accomplished through sophisticated analysis of molecular data. In the modern genomic age, molecular genetic data have become very easy and inexpensive to obtain for many species. However, some lineages are poorly represented in or absent from tissue collections, or are unavailable for molecular analysis for other reasons such as restrictive biological sample export laws. Other species went extinct recently and are only available in formalin museum preparations or perhaps even as subfossils. In this brief communication we present a new method for placing cryptic, recently extinct, or hypothesized taxa into an ultrametric phylogeny of extant taxa using continuous character data. This method is based on a relatively simple modification of an established maximum likelihood (ML) method for phylogeny inference from continuous traits. We show that the method works well on simulated trees and data. We then apply it to the case of placing the Culebra Island Giant Anole (Anolis roosevelti) into a phylogeny of Caribbean anoles. Anolis roosevelti is a “crown‐giant” ecomorph anole hypothesized to have once been found throughout the Spanish, United States, and British Virgin Islands, but that has not been encountered or collected since the 1930s. Although this species is widely thought to be closely related to the Puerto Rican giant anole, A. cuvieri, our ML method actually places A. roosevelti in a different part of the tree and closely related to a clade of morphologically similar species. We are unable, however, to reject a phylogenetic position for A. roosevelti that places it as sister taxon to A. cuvieri; although close relationship with the remainder of Puerto Rican anole species is strongly rejected by our method.     

Reassembling island ecosystems: the case of Lord Howe Island

Exotic species that invade remote islands, usually following human settlement, have had catastrophic effects on native biota. However, on islands it is increasingly feasible to eradicate key exotic species allowing extant native species to recover in situ or to return naturally. The practice of marooning threatened species on islands where the threat is absent, irrespective of whether the threatened species once occurred on the island, is well established. However, less focus has been given to the 'island' as the management unit on which to return extirpated species or related surrogates for extinct species. We use the example of Lord Howe Island as a case study to explore options for island restoration should the remaining critical exotic pests (rodents and perhaps owls in this case) be eradicated as planned. Lord Howe Island, in the south-west Pacific Ocean, is remote, biologically diverse, has a high degree of endemism, and was only discovered by humans in 1778. Consequently, the original and exotic biota and their interactions are all better known than for many islands with a more ancient human history. Two species of plants, nine terrestrial birds, one bat and at least four invertebrates have been lost from the island since 1778. One plant and two invertebrates could be returned as conspecifics. One plant and all the terrestrial birds that are extinct could be replaced by closely related species from elsewhere in the Pacific Ocean. Decisions on replacing extinct species with surrogates should be based on the taxonomic relatedness of the candidates for reintroduction: the same species before subspecies before genera, with functional replacement being a further filter on candidates that are not the same species. In our opinion, taxa with functional equivalence but without taxonomic relatedness would not be acceptable candidates for reintroduction.     

Palaeoenvironments and hominoid evolution

One of the key features that separates humans and their closest relatives (extinct species of the genus Homo and Praeanthropus and the australopithecines Australopithecus and Paranthropus) on the one hand, from the other hominoids, on the other, is their obligate bipedal locomotion when on the ground. This major difference from the generally quadrupedal locomotion practiced by other hominoids (Pan, Gorilla, Pongo and many extinct lineages) is reflected in many parts of the body, including all the major bones in the legs, arms, trunk and cranium. Locomotion has thus been of major interest to those interested in human origins, evolution, classification and phylogeny. A major hurdle to studies of the origins of bipedalism concerns the paucity of African hominoid fossils between 15 Ma, when all the adequately known hominoids were quadrupedal (most were pronograde, but at least one lineage was orthograde), and 4.2 Ma by which time fully bipedal hominids were established in Africa. Examination of Old World geology and palaeontology reveals a great deal about the evolution of palaeoenvironments and faunas during this period, and it is suggested that hominids evolved bipedal locomotion at the same time that there was a fundamental reorganisation of faunas towards the end of the Miocene. This faunal turnover resulted in the establishment of faunal lineages of "modern" aspect in Africa at the expense of "archaic" lineages which either went extinct or suffered a diminution of diversity. Many of the "modern" lineages were adapted to open country habitats in which grass became a major component of the diet as shown by modifications in the cheek teeth. Hominoids, in contrast, retained their traditional diet but were obliged to forage over greater and greater areas in order to do so, and this tactic led to pressures to modify the locomotor system rather than the diet. If bipedal hominids originated during this period, then the family Hominidae (sensu stricto) dates from about 8-7 Ma.     

Experimenting with Transmutation: Darwin, the Beagle, and Evolution

Detailed analysis of Darwin’s scientific notes and other writings from the Beagle voyage reveals a focus on endemism and replacement of allied taxa in time and in space that began early in the journey. Though it is impossible to determine exactly when Darwin became a transmutationist, the evidence suggests that he was conversant with the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and others and testing (“experimenting” with) them—before he received a copy of Lyell’s Principles of Geology, vol. 2, in November 1832, in which Lyell describes and disputes Lamarck’s theory. To the two rhea species of Patagonia and the four mockingbird species of the Galapagos, we can now add the living Patagonian cavy (rodent) species, and its extinct putatively related species that Darwin collected at Monte Hermoso (Bahia Blanca) in the Fall of 1832, as a replacement pattern absolutely critical to the development of Darwin’s transmutational thinking. Darwin developed his first transmutational theory by adopting “Brocchi’s analogy” (Rudwick 2008)—i.e. that births and deaths of species are analogous to the births and deaths of individuals. Births and deaths of species, as of individuals, are thus explicable in terms of natural causes. Darwin explored these themes and the replacement of the extinct cavy by the modern species explicitly in his February 1835 essay (Darwin 1835a).

安徽祁门地区蕨类植物区系研究

安徽祁门地区蕨类植物共有107种(包括变种、变型),隶属于28科56属,其中发现安徽地理分布新记录种1个,即丝带蕨(Drymotaenium miyoshianum)。该区的蕨类植物优势科为鳞毛蕨科(Dryopte ridaceae)、水龙骨科(Polypodiaceae)和蹄盖蕨科(Athyriaceae);优势属为鳞毛蕨属(Dryopteris)、卷柏属(Selaginella)和复叶耳蕨属(Arachniodes)。属的地理成分以泛热带为主,亚热带和温带分布次之;种的地理分布则以中国-日本分布和中国特有分布为主。祁门蕨类植物区系在区系区划上应属于典型的华东地区。该区的蕨类植物生态类型以土生为主。种的相似性分析和属的聚类分析表明:该区系与三清山和天童山的关系密切,而与白石砬子等关系疏远。     

A comparison of cortical elastic properties in the craniofacial skeletons of three primate species and its relevance to the study of human evolution

When a force is applied to an object, the resulting pattern of strain is a function of both the object's geometry and its elastic properties. Thus, knowledge of elastic properties in craniofacial cortical bone is indispensable for exploring the biomechanics and adaptation of primate skulls. However, elastic properties, such as density and stiffness, cannot be measured in all species, particularly extinct species known only from fossils. In order for advanced engineering techniques such as finite element analysis (FEA) to be applied to questions of primate and hominid craniofacial functional morphology, it is important to understand interspecific patterns of variation in elastic properties. We hypothesized that closely related species would have similar patterns of bone elastic properties, and that similarities with extant species should allow reasonable predictions of elastic properties in the skeletons of extinct primate species. In this study, we tested this hypothesis by measuring elastic properties in five areas of the external cortex of the baboon craniofacial skeleton using an ultrasonic technique, and by comparing the results to existing data from macaque and human crania. Results showed that cortical density, thickness, elastic and shear moduli, and anisotropy varied among areas in the baboon cranium. Similar variation had previously been found in rhesus and human crania, suggesting area-specific elastic patterns in the skulls of each species. Comparison among species showed differences, suggesting species-specific patterns. These patterns were more similar between macaques and baboons for density, maximum elastic and shear stiffness, and anisotropy than between either of these and humans. This finding demonstrates that patterns of cortical elastic properties are generally similar in closely related primate species with similar craniofacial morphology. Thus, reasonable estimates of cortical bone elastic properties should be possible for extinct species through the study of phylogenetically related and functionally similar modern forms. For example, reasonable elastic property estimates of cortical bone from fossil hominid skulls should be possible once adequate information about such properties in extant great apes is added to our current data from humans, macaques, and baboons. Such data should eventually allow FEA of craniofacial function in fossil hominids.     

Brain size and the diversification of body size in birds

Large brains are associated with increased cognitive skills, enabling animals to use new environments and resources more successfully. Such behavioral flexibility is theoretically expected to have macroevolutionary consequences. First, populations of big-brained individuals should more easily become established in new locations, increasing opportunities for allopatric speciation and decreasing chances that the species as a whole becomes extinct. Second, the ability to use new resources should place new selection pressures on populations, promoting adaptive diversification, a process termed "behavioral drive." In this article, we show that the average brain size of a bird family explains a significant fraction (R2 =0.12, P < .0001 , N= 120 families) of the rate at which body size diversifies within the family. The association is independent of the number of species in the family, geographic range, and correlates of speciosity, providing the first general support for the importance of behavioral drive in evolution.     

Pinda shrirangii,a new elegant species of Apiaceae from the northern Western Ghats,India

A new species, Pinda shrirangii Gosavi & Chandore, is described and illustrated from a high-elevation region of northern Western Ghats, India. The new species is closely allied to the only other species in the genus, Pinda concanensis (Dalzell) P.K.Mukh. & Constance which was also described from the northern Western Ghats of Maharashtra state of India. Coloured photographs and illustrations are provided to facilitate the identification.     

On the history of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Brasenia</Emphasis> Schreb. in the European Pleistocene

Brasenia Schreb. is a monotypic genus in the Cabombaceae, present nowadays on all continents except Europe and Antarctica. This thermophilous aquatic plant, which originated in the Tertiary, was a frequent element of aquatic plant life during the interglacial stages of the European Pleistocene. A systematic review of the palaeobotanical records of Brasenia pollen and seeds reveals its history in Europe from the Plio-Peistocene until the Eemian interglacial. Remains of Brasenia were typical for the climatic optima during each of these stages of the Pleistocene. In this paper the diversity of fossil Brasenia species is also shown. The most abundant and morphologically diverse seeds were found in sediments from eastern European sites. Brasenia species became extinct in Europe at the end of the last interglacial or at the beginning of the Weichselian glaciation. Different scenarios for their disappearance are proposed, including the specificity of the floral cycle, probable poor dispersal of seeds, or the scarcity of suitable water bodies for it to survive.     

Phylogeography, genetic diversity and conservation of the large copper butterfly Lycaena dispar in Europe

We argue that insect species conservation at large scales should take account of the distribution of genetic diversity among populations. Maintenance of genetic diversity may be vital in retaining a species' adaptive capacity and evolutionary potential. We illustrate the concept using the example of the large copper butterfly Lycaena dispar in Europe. This species has become extinct in parts of its range and is declining rapidly in others, whilst conversely, increasing in many areas. The latter has recently reduced its conservation status. Mitochondrial DNA analysis is used to construct a phylogeography from a preliminary sample set obtained from across Europe. A cytochrome b fragment of 402 base pairs was sequenced and 10 haplotypes were found. Relatedness among populations suggest that those from northern and central Europe are closely related and probably form one evolutionary significant unit (ESU) reflecting post-glacial colonization from southeast Europe. In contrast, the sample from Italy is divergent and should be considered a separate ESU. Our results, combined with ecological data, suggest that conservation action for this species should be targeted on specific regions and populations.     

Egg production, development and growth in Moina micrura Kurz (1874) (Cladocera: Moinidae)

Laboratory observations on the egg production, development and growth in the Cladoceran Moina micrura show that this species has a life span of 13 days during which it produces 6M 8 eggs. Two preadult and eleven adult instars were recorded at a temperature range of 28°–30°C. The rate of egg production calculated on a cumulative basis was found to be lower (a = 1.0368) than that of other tropical species. The embryonic stages in Moina micrura closely resembled other cladoceran species, although with a short development period of 24 h. The total life span, growth rate and the total number of eggs produced in Moina micrura have been compared with those of allied tropical, temperate and arctic daphnids. The significance of this relationship to secondary productivity in tropical ecosystems has been discussed.