Soybean adaption to high-latitude regions is associated with natural variations of GmFT2b,an ortholog of FLOWERING LOCUS T

Day length has an important influence on flowering and growth habit in many plant species. In crops such as soybean, photoperiod sensitivity determines the geographical range over which a given cultivar can grow and flower. The soybean genome contains ~10 genes homologous to FT, a central regulator of flowering from Arabidopsis thaliana. However, the precise roles of these soybean FTs are not clearly. Here we show that one such gene, GmFT2b, promotes flowering under long-days (LDs). Overexpression of GmFT2b upregulates expression of flowering-related genes which are important in regulating flowering time. We propose a ‘weight’ model for soybean flowering under short-day (SD) and LD conditions. Furthermore, we examine GmFT2b sequences in 195 soybean cultivars, as well as flowering phenotypes, geographical distributions and maturity groups. We found that Hap3, a major GmFT2b haplotype, is associated with significantly earlier flowering at higher latitudes. We anticipate our assay to provide important resources for the genetic improvement of soybean, including new germplasm for soybean breeding, and also increase our understanding of functional diversity in the soybean FT gene family.     

Flowering of strict photoperiodic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Nicotiana</Emphasis> varieties in non-inductive conditions by transgenic approaches

The genus Nicotiana contains species and varieties that respond differently to photoperiod for flowering time control as day-neutral, short-day and long-day plants. In classical photoperiodism studies, these varieties have been widely used to analyse the physiological nature for floral induction by day length. Since key regulators for flowering time control by day length have been identified in Arabidopsis thaliana by molecular genetic studies, it was intriguing to analyse how closely related plants in the Nicotiana genus with opposite photoperiodic requirements respond to certain flowering time regulators. SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CONSTANS 1 (SOC1) and FRUITFULL (FUL) are two MADS box genes that are involved in the regulation of flowering time in Arabidopsis. SOC1 is a central flowering time pathway integrator, whereas the exact role of FUL for floral induction has not been established yet. The putative Nicotiana orthologs of SOC1 and FUL, NtSOC1 and NtFUL, were studied in day-neutral tobacco Nicotiana tabacum cv Hicks, in short-day tobacco N. tabacum cv Hicks Maryland Mammoth (MM) and long-day N. sylvestris plants. Both genes were similarly expressed under short- and long-day conditions in day-neutral and short-day tobaccos, but showed a different expression pattern in N. sylvestris. Overexpression of NtSOC1 and NtFUL caused flowering either in strict short-day (NtSOC1) or long-day (NtFUL) Nicotiana varieties under non-inductive photoperiods, indicating that these genes might be limiting for floral induction under non-inductive conditions in different Nicotiana varieties.     

Molecular mechanisms for the photoperiodic regulation of flowering in soybean

Photoperiodic flowering is one of the most important factors affecting regional adaptation and yield in soybean (Glycine max). Plant adaptation to long-day conditions at higher latitudes requires early flowering and a reduction or loss of photoperiod sensitivity; adaptation to short-day conditions at lower latitudes involves delayed flowering, which prolongs vegetative growth for maximum yield potential. Due to the influence of numerous major loci and quantitative trait loci (QTLs), soybean has broad adaptability across latitudes. Forward genetic approaches have uncovered the molecular basis for several of these major maturity genes and QTLs. Moreover, the molecular characterization of orthologs of Arabidopsis thaliana flowering genes has enriched our understanding of the photoperiodic flowering pathway in soybean. Building on early insights into the importance of the photoreceptor phytochrome A, several circadian clock components have been integrated into the genetic network controlling flowering in soybean: E1, a repressor of FLOWERING LOCUS T orthologs, plays a central role in this network. Here, we provide an overview of recent progress in elucidating photoperiodic flowering in soybean, how it contributes to our fundamental understanding of flowering time control, and how this information could be used for molecular design and breeding of high-yielding soybean cultivars.     

Photoperiodism dynamics during the domestication and improvement of soybean

Soybean (Glycine max) is a facultative short-day plant with a sensitive photoperiod perception and reaction system, which allows it to adjust its physiological state and gene regulatory networks to seasonal and diurnal changes in environmental conditions. In the past few decades, soybean cultivation has spread from East Asia to areas throughout the world. Biologists and breeders must now confront the challenge of understanding the molecular mechanism of soybean photoperiodism and improving agronomic traits to enable this important crop to adapt to geographical and environmental changes. In this review, we summarize the genetic regulatory network underlying photoperiodic responses in soybean. Genomic and genetic studies have revealed that the circadian clock, in conjunction with the light perception pathways, regulates photoperiodic flowering. Here, we provide an annotated list of 844 candidate flowering genes in soybean, with their putative biological functions. Many photoperiod-related genes have been intensively selected during domestication and crop improvement. Finally, we describe recent progress in engineering photoperiod-responsive genes for improving agronomic traits to enhance geographic adaptation in soybean, as well as future prospects for research on soybean photoperiodic responses.     

Identification of Soybean Genes Involved in Circadian Clock Mechanism and Photoperiodic Control of Flowering Time by In Silico Analyses

Glycine max is a photoperiodic short-day plant and the practical consequence of the response is latitude and sowing period limitations to commercial crops. Genetic and physiological studies using the model plants Arabidopsis thaliana and rice （Oryza sativa） have uncovered several genes and genetic pathways controlling the process, however information about the corresponding pathways in legumes is scarce. Data mining prediction methodologies, including multiple sequence alignment, phylogeneUc analysis, bioinformaUcs expression and sequence motif pattern identification, were used to identify soybean genes involved in day length perception and photoperiodic flowering induction. We have investigated approximately 330 000 sequences from open-access databases and have identified all bona fide central oscillator genes and circadian photoreceptors from A. thaliana in soybean sequence databases. We propose a working model for the photoperiodic control of flowering time in G. max, based on the identified key components. These results demonstrate the power of comparative genomics between model systems and crop species to elucidate the several aspects of plant physiology and metabolism.     

Identification of flowering genes in strawberry, a perennial SD plant

Background  

We are studying the regulation of flowering in perennial plants by using diploid wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.) as a model. Wild strawberry is a facultative short-day plant with an obligatory short-day requirement at temperatures above 15°C. At lower temperatures, however, flowering induction occurs irrespective of photoperiod. In addition to short-day genotypes, everbearing forms of wild strawberry are known. In 'Baron Solemacher' recessive alleles of an unknown repressor, SEASONAL FLOWERING LOCUS (SFL), are responsible for continuous flowering habit. Although flower induction has a central effect on the cropping potential, the molecular control of flowering in strawberries has not been studied and the genetic flowering pathways are still poorly understood. The comparison of everbearing and short-day genotypes of wild strawberry could facilitate our understanding of fundamental molecular mechanisms regulating perennial growth cycle in plants.     

高羊茅FaCONSTANS基因的表达及功能分析

植物由营养生长向生殖生长转变过程中光周期调控起着重要的作用.CONSTANS (CO)是光周期途径中的特有基因,为探讨高羊茅FaCONSTANS(FaCO)基因响应日照长短从而启动植物开花的机理,利用实时荧光定量qRT-PCR技术分析在长日照、短日照、持续光照、持续黑暗条件下FaCO基因的表达水平.构建过表达载体p13...     

The pea GIGAS gene is a FLOWERING LOCUS T homolog necessary for graft-transmissible specification of flowering but not for responsiveness to photoperiod

Garden pea (Pisum sativum) was prominent in early studies investigating the genetic control of flowering and the role of mobile flowering signals. In view of recent evidence that genes in the FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) family play an important role in generating mobile flowering signals, we isolated the FT gene family in pea and examined the regulation and function of its members. Comparison with Medicago truncatula and soybean (Glycine max) provides evidence of three ancient subclades (FTa, FTb, and FTc) likely to be common to most crop and model legumes. Pea FT genes show distinctly different expression patterns with respect to developmental timing, tissue specificity, and response to photoperiod and differ in their activity in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana, suggesting they may have different functions. We show that the pea FTa1 gene corresponds to the GIGAS locus, which is essential for flowering under long-day conditions and promotes flowering under short-day conditions but is not required for photoperiod responsiveness. Grafting, expression, and double mutant analyses show that GIGAS/FTa1 regulates a mobile flowering stimulus but also provide clear evidence for a second mobile flowering stimulus that is correlated with expression of FTb2 in leaf tissue. These results suggest that induction of flowering by photoperiod in pea results from interactions among several members of a diversified FT family.     

Expression profiles of a CONSTANS homologue GmCOL11 in Glycine max

Soybean (Glycine max L.) is a typical short-day crop, and its flowering is strictly restricted by specific photoperiod conditions. CONSTANS (CO) plays a pivotal role in the photoperiod pathway of flowering regulation. CO-like genes are present in many plant species. Here we describe the isolation of the CO homologue GmCOL11 (Glycine max CO-like 11) from the soybean cv. Kennong 18. Sequence comparisons show that GmCOL11 is a group II CO-like gene with some similarity to AtCOL6 and AtCOL16. Its sequence includes a conserved B box and a CCT domain. The study of GmCOL11 expression using quantitative real time RT-PCR demonstrated that this gene was regulated in a diurnal rather than in a circadian manner. The gene was expressed throughout the plant, but mainly in adult leaves and maturing seeds; its expression was enhanced following flowering. Apparently GmCOL11 is involved in several aspects of soybean development.     

Inhibitory Action of Blue and Far-Red Light in the Flowering of Lemna paucicostata

In a new strain of short-day duckweed (Lemna paucicostata T-101), blue and far-red light-induced inhibition of flowering was investigated. Flowering of this strain failed to be induced under a short-day photoperiod of blue and far-red light, although it responded as a typical short-day plant in red and white light. When the short-day photoperiod of blue or far-red light was terminated by a 15 min red light pulse, flowering recovered completely. This inducing effect of red light was reversed by subsequent exposure to far-red light. Furthermore, it could be demonstrated that 30 min of blue light completely reversed the flowering inductive effect of 5 min red light and vice versa. Evidence is presented suggesting that the inhibitory action of blue and far red light may be due to the lowering of phytochrome P_fr levels below those required to start the dark reactions which lead to flowering. These results are discussed in relation to the time measurement system of photoperiodism.     

In situ expression of the GmNMH7 gene is photoperiod-dependent in a unique soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) flowering reversion system

Soybean is a short-day plant and its flowering process can be reversed when switching from short-day to long-day conditions. Flowering reversion provides a useful system to study the flowering process in both forward and backward directions. In this study, we optimized a soybean flowering reversion system using a photoperiod-sensitive cultivar Zigongdongdou. Three types of terminal structures were found during flowering reversion: reversed terminal raceme (RTR), short terminal raceme (STR), and vegetative terminal (VT). The relative frequency of these terminal structures during flowering reversion under long day was dependent on the duration of the prior short day (SD) pretreatment. This process is phytochrome dependent and young plants were more susceptible to flowering reversion. Leaf removal increased the minimal SD period needed for the induction of STR. To demonstrate the application of this system, we studied the patterns of in situ expression of the GmNMH7 gene during flowering development and reversion. NMH7 family members encode MADS-box proteins and are unique in legume families since their expression can be detected in both developing flowers and nodules. In situ hybridization experiments using plants grown under different photoperiod cycles provided several lines of evidence supporting a close relationship between GmNMH7 gene expression and floral development in soybean. Furthermore, it seems that GmNMH7 may participate in flower development at different stages. Interestingly, the expression pattern of GmNMH7 in root nodules was also found to be regulated by photoperiod. These results support the notion that the photoperiod sensitive GmNMH7 gene may play multiple roles in growth and development in soybean.C. Wu and Q. Ma contributed equally to this work.