A study of inter- and intrasubject variability in seven-day weighed dietary intakes with particular emphasis on trace elements

In this study of inter- and intrasubject variance of trace element (TE) dietary intake data, 14 female university students recorded weighed, self-selected food intakes for seven consecutive days, starting on a randomly selected day of the week. Daily intakes of energy, dietary fiber, macronutrients, 7 vitamins, and Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Se were calculated using food composition tables and literature values. Analysis of variance showed a significant weekend effect for energy and TE intakes that was reduced when data were expressed on the basis of nutrient densities. No day of the working week or training effect was noted for energy or any nutrient. The ratios of the inter- to intrasubject coefficient of variation for all the nutrients were surprisingly constant. However, the overall coefficients of variation—Fe, 36.5%; Zn, 45.7%; Cu, 43.7%; Mn, 58.2%, and Se, 52.7%—were markedly lower than for vitamin A (109.0%), Vitamin D (117.1%), and linoleic acid (82.2%), but slightly higher than those for energy (27.2%) and carbohydrate (30.1%). The widespread distribution of TE in the diets results in comparable reliability for dietary studies of TE and macronutrients. The 95% confidence intervals for mean individual TE intakes ranged from 25% (Zn) to 40% (Se). These relatively large uncertainties make it essential that any assessment of the significance of correlations between dietary TE intakes and biochemical indices takes into account the intra-individual variation associated with both variables.     

Dietary generalists and nutritional specialists: Feeding strategies of adult female blue monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis) in the Kakamega Forest,Kenya

Generalist primates eat many food types and shift their diet with changes in food availability. Variation in foods eaten may not, however, match variation in nutrient intake. We examined dietary variation in a generalist‐feeder, the blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis), to see how dietary food intake related to variation in available food and nutrient intake. We used 371 all‐day focal follows from 24 adult females (three groups) in a wild rainforest population to quantify daily diet over 9 months. We measured food availability using vegetation surveys and phenology monitoring. We analyzed >700 food and fecal samples for macronutrient content. Subjects included 445 food items (species‐specific plant parts and insect morphotypes) in their diet. Variation in fruit consumption (percentage of diet and total kcal) tracked variation in availability, suggesting fruit was a preferred food type. Fruits also constituted the majority of the diet (by calories) and some fruit species were eaten more than expected based on relative availability. In contrast, few species of young leaves were eaten more than expected. Also, subjects ate fewer young leaves (based on calories consumed) when fruit or young leaves were more available, suggesting that young leaves served as fallback foods. Despite the broad range of foods in the diet, group differences in fiber digestibility, and variation that reflected food availability, subjects and groups converged on similar nutrient intakes (grand mean ± SD: 637.1 ± 104.7 kcal overall energy intake, 293.3 ± 46.9 kcal nonstructural carbohydrate, 147.8 ± 72.4 kcal lipid, 107.8 ± 12.9 kcal available protein, and 88.1 ± 17.5 kcal structural carbohydrate; N = 24 subjects). Thus, blue monkeys appear to be food composition generalists and nutrient intake specialists, using flexible feeding strategies to regulate nutrient intake. Findings highlight the importance of simultaneously examining dietary composition at both levels of foods and nutrients to understand primate feeding ecology.     

EPA and DHA--protein, not fat is "where it's at"?

Guidelines and recommendations for the dietary intake of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are topics of debate. Recently, EPA and DHA intakes have been demonstrated to be associated with dietary protein intakes and not dietary fat intakes that are distinct from α-linolenic acid. We presently confirm these observations in a secondary analysis of baseline dietary intake data for the validation of a food frequency questionnaire (n=99). DHA intakes measured by both 3 d dietary record and food frequency questionnaire and EPA intakes measured by food frequency questionnaire were positively correlated with protein intakes. EPA and DHA were not associated with fat intakes in either assessment, while ?-linolenic acid was positively correlated with fat intakes. Future recommendations regarding the intake of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and EPA and DHA specifically, should consider these associations that provide insight on dietary sources of EPA and DHA in the food supply.     

Influence of Feeding Paradigm in Rats on Temporal Pattern of: I. Macronutrient Intake and Arterio-Venous Differences in Plasma Glucose,Insulin and Tryptophan

Relationships among feeding paradigm (single diet vs food selection) and arterio-venous differences (δAV) of glucose, insulin and tryptophan were studied by measuring the temporal patterns of food intake and plasma parameters during 8 hr feeding cycles in rats. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were offered a single diet of fixed composition (20% casein) or a choice between two isocaloric diets (0% and 60% casein) for 2 weeks under 8-hr daily feeding conditions, food being offered during the dark cycle. Groups of animals were then killed at the beginning and at 2-hourly intervals throughout the feeding period. With both feeding paradigms, rats showed temporal patterns of energy, carbohydrate and protein intakes with a peak at the beginning and a trough at the end of the feeding period. However, in rats offered a dietary choice the intake of carbohydrate was significantly lower, and the intakes of energy and protein significantly higher than those found in rats offered a single diet. Throughout the feeding period, these differences between single and choice diets became less accentuated in the case of carbohydrate intake, but more accentuated for energy and protein intakes. Paradoxically, rats fed a choice of diets had a significantly lower weight gain than rats fed a single diet. The temporal variation of insulin secretion and tryptophan absorption varied inversely with the two diet paradigms. Moreover, in rats offered a choice of diets, macronutrient intake was significantly correlated with insulin secretion and venous glucose concentration. The opposed physiologic and metabolic responses to the feeding paradigms suggest the need for future studies to examine the possibility that such can function as synchronizers of biological rhythms.     

The effects of nutritional imbalance on compensatory feeding for cellulose-mediated dietary dilution in a generalist caterpillar

Abstract. The interactive effects of macronutrient balance [protein (P) : carbohydrate (C) ratio] and dietary dilution by cellulose on nutritional regulation and performance were investigated in the generalist caterpillar Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval). Caterpillars were reared through the final stadium on one of 20 foods varying factorially in macronutrient content (P + C%: 42, 33.6. 25.2 or 16.8%) and P : C ratio (5 : 1, 2 : 1, 1 : 1, 1 : 2 or 1 : 5). The animals compensate by eating more of diluted foods, but suffer reduced nutrient intake in proportion to the degree of dilution. Increase in food intake with dilution is greater on balanced than imbalanced foods and this is reflected in greater reduction of dry pupal mass with dilution in the latter. Whereas dilution results in a reduction in the amount of whichever macronutrient is in excess in the food, by contrast, the ability to compensate for the deficient macronutrient in the food is unaffected by nutrient imbalance. Excess protein intake due to nutritional imbalance (diets with high P : C ratios) results in a regulatory decrease in the efficiency of retention of ingested nitrogen relative to restricted protein intake on oppositely imbalanced foods (low P : C ratios). By contrast, decreased protein intake due to dietary dilution is associated with a non‐regulatory reduction in the efficiency of retention, irrespective of P : C ratio. Dilution is similarly associated with reduced utilization efficiency of ingested carbohydrate. The ecological implications of these results are discussed.     

Zinc and copper intake and sources in healthy adults living in Bangkok and surrounding districts

The levels of intake and food sources of zinc and copper in 231 20–80 yr old healthy adults living in Bangkok and surrounding districts were determined. Dietary data from 3-d food records collected and validated at Research Center, Ramathibodi Hospital were analyzed. Levels of zinc and copper intake were compared between sexes and age groups (20–39, 40–59, and 60–80 yr). Mean daily zinc and copper intakes (±SEM) in men were 6.3 ±0.2 and 1.9 ±0.1 mg, respectively. Mean daily zinc and copper intakes (±SEM) estimated in women (5.5 ±0.2 and 1.6 +-0.1 mg) were significantly lower. Higher zinc and copper intakes were found in the younger (20-39 yr) age group of both sexes. This could be explained by higher density and percentage from animal source of both nutrients. Consumption of various types of meat, fish, egg, and milk accounted for 42 and 22%, and rice, the staple food of Thai people for 9 and 23% of total dietary zinc and copper, respectively.     

Influence of Feeding Paradigm in Rats on Temporal Pattern of: I. Macronutrient Intake and Arterio-Venous Differences in Plasma Glucose, Insulin and Tryptophan

Relationships among feeding paradigm (single diet vs food selection) and arterio-venous differences (δAV) of glucose, insulin and tryptophan were studied by measuring the temporal patterns of food intake and plasma parameters during 8 hr feeding cycles in rats. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were offered a single diet of fixed composition (20% casein) or a choice between two isocaloric diets (0% and 60% casein) for 2 weeks under 8-hr daily feeding conditions, food being offered during the dark cycle. Groups of animals were then killed at the beginning and at 2-hourly intervals throughout the feeding period. With both feeding paradigms, rats showed temporal patterns of energy, carbohydrate and protein intakes with a peak at the beginning and a trough at the end of the feeding period. However, in rats offered a dietary choice the intake of carbohydrate was significantly lower, and the intakes of energy and protein significantly higher than those found in rats offered a single diet. Throughout the feeding period, these differences between single and choice diets became less accentuated in the case of carbohydrate intake, but more accentuated for energy and protein intakes. Paradoxically, rats fed a choice of diets had a significantly lower weight gain than rats fed a single diet. The temporal variation of insulin secretion and tryptophan absorption varied inversely with the two diet paradigms. Moreover, in rats offered a choice of diets, macronutrient intake was significantly correlated with insulin secretion and venous glucose concentration. The opposed physiologic and metabolic responses to the feeding paradigms suggest the need for future studies to examine the possibility that such can function as synchronizers of biological rhythms.     

Nutritional composition of the diet of the western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla): Interspecific variation in diet quality

To meet nutritional needs, primates adjust their diets in response to local habitat differences, though whether these dietary modifications translate to changes in dietary nutrient intake is unknown. A previous study of two populations of the mountain gorilla (MG: Gorilla beringei) found no evidence for intraspecific variation in the nutrient composition of their diets, despite ecological and dietary differences between sites. One potential explanation is that nutritional variability in primate diets requires greater ecological divergence than what was captured between MG sites, underpinning environmental differences in the nutrient quality of plant foods. To test whether Gorilla exhibits interspecific variation in dietary composition and nutrient intake, we studied the composition and macronutrients of the western gorilla (WG: Gorilla gorilla) staple diets and compared them with published data from the two MG populations. We recorded feeding time and food intake of four adult female WGs from one habituated group over a period of 11 months (December 2004–October 2005) at the Mondika Research Center, Republic of Congo, allowing for assessment of seasonal patterns of nutrient intake. Staple diets of WGs and MGs diverged in their dietary and macronutrient composition. Compared to MGs, the staple diet of WGs (by intake) contained higher proportions of fruit (43%) and leaf (12%) and a lower proportion of herb (39%), resulting in a higher intake of total nonstructural carbohydrate and fiber and a lower intake of crude protein. Staple gorilla fruits and herbs differed in nutrient quality between sites. Gorillas exhibit nutritional flexibility that reflects ecological variation in the nutrient quality of plant foods. Since dietary quality typically affects rates of growth and reproduction in primates, our results suggest that interspecific differences in nutrient intake and food quality may shape differences in gorilla nutrient balancing and female life history strategies.     

Sugar,fat, and the risk of colorectal cancer.

The habitual diet of 50 patients with large bowel cancer, as assessed by a dietary history method, was compared with that of 50 closely matched controls. Patients were included only if their symptoms were unlikely to have changed previous eating habits. The mean daily intakes of all major nutrient classes and of dietary fibre were estimated. Patients with large bowel cancer consumed 16% more energy than controls (mean (SEM) daily intake 9.92 (0.41) v 8.56 (0.32) MJ (2370 (98) v 2046 (76) kcal), respectively; p less than 0.0001), mainly in the form of carbohydrate (21% more; 282.6 (13.7) v 233.4 (10.5) g; p less than 0.0001) and fat (14% more; 100.8 (4.3) v 88.4 (3.2) g; p less than 0.001). The extra carbohydrate was largely in the form of sugars depleted in fibre and the extra fat as combinations of fat and such sugars. As the selection criteria used make it unlikely that this eating pattern was caused by the disease the data suggest that a high intake of sugars depleted in fibre and fat predisposes to the development of large bowel cancer.     

Determinants of zinc intake in low-Income black and white pregnant women

A prospective study was conducted to evaluate and compare the determinants of dietary zinc intake in black and white low-income pregnant women. The study population consisted of 1298 low-income women (70% Black, 30% White) who received prenatal care at University Hospital at the University of Alabama in Birmingham from 1985 to 1989. Various maternal characteristics were evaluated at the first prenatal visit. Two 24 h recalls were obtained at 18 and 30 wk of gestation to calculate the intakes of dietary zinc and other nutrients. Student’st test, ξ², Pearson correlation coefficients, and multiple regression analyses were used to compare and evaluate the determinants of zinc and other nutrient intakes in Black and White subjects. The mean prepregnancy body mass index and the mean intake of zinc, energy, and all the other nutrients except calcium were significantly higher in Black than in White subjects. There was a significant correlation between zinc and energy intake (r- 0.69,p = 0.001). Age, marital status, parity, socioeconomic status, smoking, and alcohol intake were not significant predictors of zinc or other nutrient intakes. After adjusting for energy intake, race was the only significant predictor of dietary zinc intake. Race and energy intake explained 24% of the variation in zinc intake. Results of this study indicate that after adjusting for other covariates, race and energy intakes are the only predictors of zinc intake in low-income pregnant women.     

Effect of dietary intake and lifestyle factors on in vivo mutant frequency at the HPRT gene locus in healthy human subjects

This paper describes the results of a study designed to assess the effects of a variety of dietary and lifestyle factors on background levels of mutant frequency (MF) at the hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT) gene locus in humans. Eighty-three healthy and free-living subjects (aged 20–80 yr; 61 males and 22 females; mean age of 63.07±14.71 yr) were recruited. Background levels of MF were determined for each subject using a cloning assay. The mean MF/10⁶ clonable cells (MF) for the study subjects was 4.63±2.20. An interview-administered questionnaire was completed by each study subject in order to assess details of dietary history, physical activity, health and potential genotoxin exposure history. A 7-day estimated dietary record method with a food frequency questionnaire was used to determine average intakes of energy and macronutrients (including alcohol), and a range of micronutrients (including vitamin and mineral supplement usage). The relationships between individual dietary and lifestyle factors and HPRT MF were investigated by univariate and multivariate analysis (data was adjusted for age, lymphocyte plating efficiency [PE] and energy intake [EI]). Univariate analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between EI and MF and multivariate analysis revealed significant positive correlations between, body mass index (BMI), % energy intake from total carbohydrate, starch, fat and MF. These findings suggest that a reduction in EI may be a useful preventative measure against the onset of carcinogenesis in humans. No correlations were found between alcohol intake and MF or between estimated antioxidant intake and MF. Thus, estimated intakes of antioxidants may not reflect their bioavailability and functional capacity in vivo and it may be more useful to examine actual plasma/cell levels vs. MF to establish if any significant relationship exists.     

Effect of dietary intake and lifestyle factors on in vivo mutant frequency at the HPRT gene locus in healthy human subjects

This paper describes the results of a study designed to assess the effects of a variety of dietary and lifestyle factors on background levels of mutant frequency (MF) at the hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT) gene locus in humans. Eighty-three healthy and free-living subjects (aged 20–80 yr; 61 males and 22 females; mean age of 63.07±14.71 yr) were recruited. Background levels of MF were determined for each subject using a cloning assay. The mean MF/10⁶ clonable cells (MF) for the study subjects was 4.63±2.20. An interview-administered questionnaire was completed by each study subject in order to assess details of dietary history, physical activity, health and potential genotoxin exposure history. A 7-day estimated dietary record method with a food frequency questionnaire was used to determine average intakes of energy and macronutrients (including alcohol), and a range of micronutrients (including vitamin and mineral supplement usage). The relationships between individual dietary and lifestyle factors and HPRT MF were investigated by univariate and multivariate analysis (data was adjusted for age, lymphocyte plating efficiency [PE] and energy intake [EI]). Univariate analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between EI and MF and multivariate analysis revealed significant positive correlations between, body mass index (BMI), % energy intake from total carbohydrate, starch, fat and MF. These findings suggest that a reduction in EI may be a useful preventative measure against the onset of carcinogenesis in humans. No correlations were found between alcohol intake and MF or between estimated antioxidant intake and MF. Thus, estimated intakes of antioxidants may not reflect their bioavailability and functional capacity in vivo and it may be more useful to examine actual plasma/cell levels vs. MF to establish if any significant relationship exists.     

Nutrition and energetics of the canary (Serinus canarius)

Canaries appear to be primarily seed-eaters, although there are no reports of their feeding ecology in the wild. In captivity, they are offered seed-based diets, preferring to consume seeds such as canary, rapeseed and millet. The mean daily dry-matter intake ranges from 3 to 4 g, which corresponds to a mean gross energy intake of approximately 70 kJ per bird per day. The efficiency of dietary metabolism is high (0.85), which equates to individual metabolizable energy intakes of 45-75 kJ per bird per day. For a canary of average body weight (22 g) the data can be fitted to a regression equation to predict a requirement of 62 kJ ME per day. This corresponds to published information on the energy requirements of other passerine species, but deviates from the predictive equation for poultry. The digestibility values for protein, fat and carbohydrate are similar to those obtained for the budgerigar, although it is likely that the digestibility coefficient is dependent upon the seed type and alimentary tract lipase and amylase activities. Nutrient requirements of canary chicks have not yet been determined, although recent studies have provided data on the nutrient intakes of developing chicks. The newly-hatched canary chick has a rapid growth rate, achieving 90% of its asymptotic body mass by 11 days of age. Gross energy intake is approximately 3 kJ per day following hatching and by day 10 is equivalent to that of an adult canary. It appears that the protein intake should lie between 16.5 and 21.9% of the diet (as is), with peak intake occurring between 8 and 10 days of age.     

Ingestive Pattern Changes in Blinded Rats

Eating and drinking patterns were examined in intact and blinded adult male Sprague-Dawley rats fed a choice among isocaloric casein, sucrose/dextrin, and vegetable shortening/soybean oil diets. Weekly mean intake of all nutrients was altered in blinded rats, with increased lipid intake and decreased water intake in rats blinded for 2 weeks, lower carbohydrate but higher protein and water intakes in rats blinded for 4 weeks, while 2 weeks later blinded rats maintained high intakes of protein and water. The amplitudes of the daily rhythms for each nutrient behaved similarly to the weekly intakes. Delayed daily time of peak intake for all nutrients over successive weeks after blindness were found, indicating that the timing of peak intake free-runs. 24 h profile indicated time of day variations of nutrient intake tending to be less marked over successive weeks of blindness. Free-running animals maintained the link between carbohydrate intake and hypothalamus serotonin.     

Estimating energy and nutrient intakes in studies of human fertility.

Two methods of dietary recording, the 24-hr recall and the weighed dietary intake methods, are considered appropriate for estimating energy and nutrient intakes in studies of human fertility. The former method gives lower estimates than the latter, although weighed intakes may underestimate true intakes. Examination of food intakes of pregnant, lactating, and non-pregnant, non-lactating New Guinean women shows their diet to be less homogeneous than is generally assumed for groups in developing countries. As a result direct observations of food intake for a limited number of days are not sufficiently accurate for the estimation of intake of most of the nutrients examined. Rather the study design should reflect the variability of intakes of the nutrients and groups under consideration.     

Linear measurement error models with restricted sampling

The relationship between nutrient consumption and chronic disease risk is the focus of a large number of epidemiological studies where food frequency questionnaires (FFQ) and food records are commonly used to assess dietary intake. However, these self-assessment tools are known to involve substantial random error for most nutrients, and probably important systematic error as well. Study subject selection in dietary intervention studies is sometimes conducted in two stages. At the first stage, FFQ-measured dietary intakes are observed and at the second stage another instrument, such as a 4-day food record, is administered only to participants who have fulfilled a prespecified criterion that is based on the baseline FFQ-measured dietary intake (e.g., only those reporting percent energy intake from fat above a prespecified quantity). Performing analysis without adjusting for this truncated sample design and for the measurement error in the nutrient consumption assessments will usually provide biased estimates for the population parameters. In this work we provide a general statistical analysis technique for such data with the classical additive measurement error that corrects for the two sources of bias. The proposed technique is based on multiple imputation for longitudinal data. Results of a simulation study along with a sensitivity analysis are presented, showing the performance of the proposed method under a simple linear regression model.     

Nutritional regulation in nymphs of the German cockroach,Blattella germanica

Synthetic foods varying in protein-carbohydrate ratio and total nutrient concentration were used in food selection experiments to investigate the ingestive and post-ingestive regulation of macronutrients by male and female nymphs of the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.) (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae). For both nutrient imbalance and food dilution, food ingestion varied between treatments with the effect that nutrient ingestion was regulated. However, this mechanism was insufficient to compensate for some food dilution treatments. In those cases, the regulation of protein intake was prioritised over that of carbohydrate intake, and two additional regulatory responses were seen. Firstly, cellulose digestion supplemented shortfalls in dietary soluble carbohydrates, and secondly the feeding period within the stadium was prolonged. These ingestive, post-ingestive and developmental responses were orchestrated in such a way that, in all treatments, nutrient gain approached similar levels, despite the variation in food properties.     

Estimating energy intake of urban women in Colombia: Comparison of diet records and recalls

As part of a larger study of energy-nutrition, we compared the performance of 24 h diet recalls with estimated diet records kept by trained observers. The subjects were economically disadvantaged women (n = 85) in the city of Cali, Colombia. A 24 h recall and an estimated diet record were collected for each woman at 0 and approximately 3 and 6 months. Energy intake obtained from the estimated dietary records was validated against energy expenditure and used as the reference method. Energy and macronutrient intake were calculated from published food composition tables and proximate analyses of common foods. The number of food items consumed per woman per day, total and in each of 16 food groups, was tabulated. Energy and macronutrient intakes were 11–13% lower in the 24 h recalls. The discrepancy energy could be largely accounted for by the lower number of food items in the recalls. The number of food items in eight of 16 food groups was significantly lower in the recalls compared to the records. Underreporting on the recalls was a general tendency in these subjects and not clearly related to average energy intake. We conclude that 24 h diet recalls underestimate energy and nutrient intake in this population and are not suitable for studies of human energetics. Am J Phys Anthropol 108:53–63, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Nutrition Concerns of Insufficient and Excessive Intake of Dietary Minerals in Lactating Women: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Three Cities of China

Objective

Objectives of this study were 1) to investigate the mineral intake by Chinese lactating women, 2) to explore the dietary source of minerals, and 3) the ratios between different dietary minerals.

Methods

A total of 468 lactating women in 5–240 days post-partum participated in this study. Food intakes by participants were measured using one time of 24-hour dietary recall, and minerals from food were calculated based on the Chinese Food Composition Table, second edition.

Results

In post-partum, women had inadequate food intake. 81.0% of women’s daily intake of dairy products was lower than 300g, and 97.1% of women’s daily intake of salt over 6g. For mineral intake, there were 81.8%, 59.0%, 47.6%, 45.7% and 66.8% of women’s calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc and selenium intake lower than the estimated average requirement, respectively, and 91.7% of women’s excessive intake of sodium. The calcium/phosphorus and sodium/potassium ratios were 0.41±0.26/1 and 3.13±2.89/1, respectively. Considering the dietary sources of minerals, 27.3%, 25.3% and 30.1% of iron, zinc and calcium were from animal-based food, respectively, and 60.3%, 66.1% and 58.0% of iron, zinc and calcium were from plant-based food, respectively. The phosphorus-protein ratio was 0.014±0.003/1. Lactation stage was associated with nutrient intake. Women within 30 days post-partum and the ones who live in Guangzhou had a significantly lower intake of certain minerals, while women with a high education experience had a high intake of calcium, potassium, iron and zinc. Productive age, whether obese or not, and delivery ways were not associated with mineral intakes (P all >0.05).

Conclusion

Chinese women in three studied cities had an inappropriate food intake and resulted in both insufficient and excessive intakes of certain minerals.     

Dietary exposure and risk assessment to cadmium of the adult population of Jiangsu province,China: Comparing between semi-probabilistic and fully probabilistic approaches

With rapid industrialization and modernization in China, long-term dietary exposure to cadmium (Cd) has the potential to cause health risks. The traditional probabilistic approach for long-term dietary assessment was a semi-probabilistic method that had limitations in qualifying the variation in concentration data. Thus, this article estimated the long-term dietary exposure to Cd of the adults of Jiangsu province using semi-probabilistic and fully probabilistic approaches, and compared the two models. Cd concentration data were obtained from the national food contamination monitoring program 2001–2009. Food consumption data were gathered from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey conducted in 2002. The provisional tolerable daily intakes (PTDI) of 0.8 μg kg^–1 bw for Cd was applied in the risk assessment. The estimates of semi-probabilistic approach were within the provisional tolerable daily intakes (PTDI) at mean and all percentiles. However, the P95 of exposure with fully probabilistic approach for all population groups were above PTDI. Rice and rice products followed by wheat flour and wheat flour products, crustaceans, pak-choi, beans, and bean products contributed most to the Cd intake for adults. The fully probabilistic estimates could indicate a possible public health concern on Cd for adults in Jiangsu province.