Mutational analysis of the Drosophila DNA repair and recombination gene mei-9

Drosophila mei-9 is essential for several DNA repair and recombination pathways, including nucleotide excision repair (NER), interstrand crosslink repair, and meiotic recombination. To better understand the role of MEI-9 in these processes, we characterized 10 unique mutant alleles of mei-9. These include a P-element insertion that disrupts repair functions but not the meiotic function; three nonsense mutations, one of which has nearly wild-type levels of protein; three missense mutations, one of which disrupts the meiotic function but not repair functions; two small in-frame deletions; and one frameshift.     

A cell-cycle stage-related chromosomal X-ray hypersensitivity in larval neuroblasts of Drosophila mei-9 and mei-41 mutants suggesting defective DNA double-strand break repair

We have examined the chromosomal X-ray hypersensitivity in relation to the cell cycle in larval neuroblasts of the mutagen-sensitive and excision repair-defective mutant mei-9 and of the mutagen-sensitive and post-replication repair-defective mutant mei-41 of Drosophila melanogaster. When compared to wild-type cells, cells bearing the mei-9L1 allele produced unusually high levels in particular of chromatid deletions and to a lesser extent also of isochromatid deletions, but virtually no exchange aberrations. The chromosomal hypersensitivity is apparent at M1 when cells are irradiated in S or G2 but not when irradiated in G1. On the other hand, following irradiation cells bearing the mei-41D5 allele predominantly produce chromosome deletions. Also dicentric and chromatid exchange formation is enhanced with a moderate increase in chromatid deletions. The phases of major sensitivity are the S and G1. Mei-9 and mei-41 mutants have been classified to date as proficient in DNA double-strand break repair. The data presented in this paper revealed an S-independent clastogenic hypersensitivity of mei-9 and mei-41 cells. They are interpreted as indicative evidence for the presence of impaired DNA double-strand break repair. The cell-cycle-related difference in the ratio of chromatid- versus chromosome-type deletions in both mutants suggests repair defects at partially different phases of the cell cycle in mei-9 and mei-41 mutant cells.     

DNA错配修复基因mutS的高效表达及表达产物活性鉴定

将DNA错配修复基因mutS(2.56kb)克隆于分泌型原核表达载体pET32a( )上,以N端融合6个组氨酸的形式在E.col AD494(DE3)中进行了IPTG诱导表达。SDS－PAGE分析证实有一与预期分子量相应的诱导表达条带,其表达量占全菌蛋白质的35％左右,且表达蛋白以可溶形式存在。利用固定化金属离子（Ni^2 )配体亲和层析柱纯化目的蛋白,其纯度为90％以上。与含有错配碱基DNA双链的结合反应证明该蛋白具有特异性识别,结合含有错配碱基DNA双链的生物活性。     

The yield of visible mutations, spontaneous and N-nitroso-N-ethylurea-induced, in the Drosophila mei-9 11 strain defective for excision repair

The increase of spontaneous and induced frequencies in mature sperm by N-nitroso-N-ethylurea visible mutation in the stock mei-9(11) of Drosophila melanogaster blocking the excision reparation has been shown. It is suggested that the mutation mei-9(11) blocks the correct way of reparation that is shown in mutator effect of this mutation.     

Efficient Gap Repair Catalyzed In Vitro by an Intrinsic DNA Polymerase Activity of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Integrase

Cleavage and DNA joining reactions, carried out by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) integrase, are necessary to effect the covalent insertion of HIV-1 DNA into the host genome. For the integration of HIV-1 DNA into the cellular genome to be completed, short gaps flanking the integrated proviral DNA must be repaired. It has been widely assumed that host cell DNA repair enzymes are involved. Here we report that HIV-1 integrase multimers possess an intrinsic DNA-dependent DNA polymerase activity. The activity was characterized by its dependence on Mg²⁺, resistance to N-ethylmaleimide, and inhibition by 3′-azido-2′,3′-dideoxythymidine-5′-triphosphate, coumermycin A₁, and pyridoxal 5′-phosphate. The enzyme efficiently utilized poly(dA)-oligo(dT) or self-annealing oligonucleotides as a template primer but displayed relatively low activity with gapped calf thymus DNA and no activity with poly(dA) or poly(rA)-oligo(dT). A monoclonal antibody binding specifically to an epitope comprised of amino acids 264 to 273 near the C terminus of HIV-1 integrase severely inhibited the DNA polymerase activity. A deletion of 50 amino acids at the C terminus of integrase drastically altered the gel filtration properties of the DNA polymerase, although the level of activity was unaffected by this mutation. The DNA polymerase efficiently extended a hairpin DNA primer up to 19 nucleotides on a T₂₀ DNA template, although addition of the last nucleotide occurred infrequently or not at all. The ability of integrase to repair gaps in DNA was also investigated. We designed a series of gapped molecules containing a single-stranded region flanked by a duplex U5 viral arm on one side and by a duplex nonviral arm on the other side. Molecules varied structurally depending on the size of the gap (one, two, five, or seven nucleotides), their content of T’s or C’s in the single-stranded region, whether the CA dinucleotide in the viral arm had been replaced with a nonviral sequence, or whether they contained 5′ AC dinucleotides as unpaired tails. The results indicated that the integrase DNA polymerase is specifically designed to repair gaps efficiently and completely, regardless of gap size, base composition, or structural features such as the internal CA dinucleotide or unpaired 5′-terminal AC dinucleotides. When the U5 arm of the gapped DNA substrate was removed, leaving a nongapped DNA template-primer, the integrase DNA polymerase failed to repair the last nucleotide in the DNA template effectively. A post-gap repair reaction did depend on the CA dinucleotide. This secondary reaction was highly regulated. Only two nucleotides beyond the gap were synthesized, and these were complementary to and dependent for their synthesis on the CA dinucleotide. We were also able to identify a specific requirement for the C terminus of integrase in the post-gap repair reaction. The results are consistent with a direct role for a heretofore unsuspected DNA polymerase function of HIV-1 integrase in the repair of short gaps flanking proviral DNA integration intermediates that arise during virus infection.Integration of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) DNA is an essential step in the replicative cycle of the virus (6, 13, 16, 29, 41). The initial steps whereby HIV-1 DNA becomes covalently associated with the host DNA are mediated by the viral integrase protein. Two distinct chemical reactions are involved. In a processing step, integrase cleaves viral DNA endonucleolytically, resulting in the removal of a GT dinucleotide from the 3′ ends of the DNA (15, 48, 51). Once in the nucleus, concerted cleavage and DNA strand transfer reactions, involving viral and host DNA, enable the processed 3′ termini to become covalently joined to a host DNA target site. The intermediate produced in this manner contains unpaired 5′ ends adjacent to five-base gaps. Completion of integration requires the repair of these gaps and the joining of the 5′ ends of viral DNA to the host DNA (2). The relatively rapid kinetics of 5′-end joining in vivo has been used as a basis on which to argue in favor of a role for integrase in this step of integration (40). Although integrase can catalyze the latter reaction in vitro, albeit inefficiently (28), it has been generally assumed that host cell enzymes perform gap repair and 5′-end joining.Structural, functional, and mutational studies have defined integrase as a 32-kDa protein that can be divided into three distinct functional domains (50). The catalytic core, including amino acids 50 to 212, contains a triad of acidic amino acids (Asp 64, Asp 116, and Glu 152) that form a highly conserved D,D-35-E motif. In the three-dimensional crystal structure, these amino acids are in close proximity (10). Mutation of any one of these acidic residues severely hampers the ability of integrase to catalyze endonucleolytic cleavage and DNA strand transfer (5, 9, 12, 13, 27, 31, 32). The C terminus binds DNA nonspecifically and is required for cleavage and integration activity (47, 49, 52, 53). The amino terminus contains a zinc finger or HHCC motif, which coordinates a molar equivalent of zinc (4). This domain influences DNA binding (21, 25, 47), although it does not bind DNA on its own (26, 38).In the functional integration complex, integrase is believed to act as a multimer (11, 24, 46). Transcomplementation, in which DNA strand transfer and cleavage activities are restored by mixing nonfunctional mutants, implies that the active form of integrase is minimally a dimer (46). Integrase can exist in equilibrium between dimeric and tetrameric forms, and multimerization determinants can be identified within the integrase protein (1). Association of one molar equivalent of zinc with a soluble mutant of integrase favored the formation of the tetrameric form of the protein (54).The present study was undertaken to further characterize HIV-1 integrase by searching for novel enzymatic activities that may be associated with this viral protein. We chose specifically to look for an associated DNA polymerase activity in an attempt to elucidate the final steps in integration, namely, gap repair and 5′-end joining.     

Cloning of the DNA Repair Gene, Uvsf, by Transformation of Aspergillus Nidulans

As a first step in the cloning of the DNA repair gene uvsF of Aspergillus nidulans, uvsF pyrG double mutant strains were transformed with a genomic library which carried the complementing Neurospora pyr-4 gene in the vector. Rare pyr+ uvs+ cotransformants were obtained on media lacking pyrimidines, overlayed with MMS (methyl-methane sulfonate) to which uvsF is hypersensitive. Among MMS-resistant transformants, Southerns revealed two types which showed single bands of different sizes when BglII-digested genomic DNA was probed with the vector. Both types produced uvsF- recombinants without vector sequences in homozygous crosses, but only those with the larger band also produced haploid uvs+ progeny. Using BglII-digested genomic DNA to transform Escherichia coli, plasmids of the corresponding two sizes could be rescued. Their inserts had a short internal region in common, giving evidence of rearrangement(s). In secondary transformation of uvsF mutants, only the plasmids with the larger insert showed complementation and these were used to screen Aspergillus libraries. Three types of genomic and two overlapping cDNA clones were identified. The cDNAs hybridized not only to each other, but also to the common region of the rescued plasmids. Therefore, cDNA subclones were used to map the putative uvsF sequences to a short segment in one genomic clone. In Northerns, the complementing large plasmid hybridized to three mRNAs, while the cDNA subclone identified one of these as the probable uvsF message.     

Enzymes of Direct,Excision, and Mismatch DNA Repair in Pro- and Eukaryotes and Their Biological Role

DNA repair is of paramount importance to protect the integrity of the cell genome. Over the last decade, DNA repair enzymes have been intensely studied owing to their role in mutagenesis, carcinogenesis, and aging. This led to discoveries of novel enzymes, protein factors as well as their intermolecular complexes involved in the repair process. Alternative pathways of cell response to the same type of damage were identified. Data on the tertiary structure of a number of enzymes and mechanisms of their molecular interaction were obtained. This paper is an overview of latest advances in the research of cell response to DNA damage via direct, base and nucleotide excision, and mismatch DNA repair.     

Induced Rates of Mitotic Crossing over and Possible Mitotic Gene Conversion per Wing Anlage Cell in Drosophila Melanogaster by X Rays and Fission Neutrons

As a model for chromosome aberrations, radiation-induced mitotic recombination of mwh and flr genes in Drosophila melanogaster strain (mwh +/+ flr) was quantitatively studied. Fission neutrons were five to six times more effective than X rays per unit dose in producing either crossover-mwh/flr twins and mwh singles-or flr singles, indicating that common processes are involved in the production of crossover and flr singles. The X-ray-induced rate/wing anlage cell/Gy for flr singles was 1 X 10(-5), whereas that of crossover was 2 x 10(-4); the former and the latter rate are of the same order of magnitude as those of gene conversion and crossover in yeast, respectively. Thus, we conclude that proximal-marker "flr" singles induced in the transheterozygote are gene convertants. Using the model based on yeast that recombination events result from repair of double-strand breaks or gaps, we propose that mitotic recombination in the fly is a secondary result of recombinational DNA repair. Evidence for recombinational misrepair in the fly is given. The relative ratio of radiation-induced mitotic crossover to spontaneous meiotic crossover is one order of magnitude higher in the fly than in yeast and humans.     

Slow Conformational Changes in MutS and DNA Direct Ordered Transitions between Mismatch Search,Recognition and Signaling of DNA Repair

MutS functions in mismatch repair (MMR) to scan DNA for errors, identify a target site and trigger subsequent events in the pathway leading to error removal and DNA re-synthesis. These actions, enabled by the ATPase activity of MutS, are now beginning to be analyzed from the perspective of the protein itself. This study provides the first ensemble transient kinetic data on MutS conformational dynamics as it works with DNA and ATP in MMR. Using a combination of fluorescence probes (on Thermus aquaticus MutS and DNA) and signals (intensity, anisotropy and resonance energy transfer), we have monitored the timing of key conformational changes in MutS that are coupled to mismatch binding and recognition, ATP binding and hydrolysis, as well as sliding clamp formation and signaling of repair. Significant findings include (a) a slow step that follows weak initial interaction between MutS and DNA, in which concerted conformational changes in both macromolecules control mismatch recognition, and (b) rapid, binary switching of MutS conformations that is concerted with ATP binding and hydrolysis and (c) is stalled after mismatch recognition to control formation of the ATP-bound MutS sliding clamp. These rate-limiting pre- and post-mismatch recognition events outline the mechanism of action of MutS on DNA during initiation of MMR.     

DNA Structures Generated during Recombination Initiated by Mismatch Repair of Uv-Irradiated Nonreplicating Phage DNA in Escherichia Coli: Requirements for Helicase, Exonucleases, and Recf and Recbcd Functions

During infection of homoimmune Escherichia coli lysogens (``repressed infections'), undamaged non-replicating λ phage DNA circles undergo very little recombination. Prior UV irradiation of phages dramatically elevates recombinant frequencies, even in bacteria deficient in UvrABC-mediated excision repair. We previously reported that 80-90% of this UvrABC-independent recombination required MutHLS function and unmethylated d(GATC) sites, two hallmarks of methyl-directed mismatch repair. We now find that deficiencies in other mismatch-repair activities--UvrD helicase, exonuclease I, exonuclease VII, RecJ exonuclease--drastically reduce recombination. These effects of exonuclease deficiencies on recombination are greater than previously observed effects on mispair-provoked excision in vitro. This suggests that the exonucleases also play other roles in generation and processing of recombinagenic DNA structures. Even though dsDNA breaks are thought to be highly recombinagenic, 60% of intracellular UV-irradiated phage DNA extracted from bacteria in which recombination is low--UvrD(-), ExoI(-), ExoVII(-), or RecJ(-)--displays (near-)blunt-ended dsDNA ends (RecBCD-sensitive when deproteinized). In contrast, only bacteria showing high recombination (Mut(+) UvrD(+) Exo(+)) generate single-stranded regions in nonreplicating UV-irradiated DNA. Both recF and recB recC mutations strikingly reduce recombination (almost as much as a recF recB recC triple mutation), suggesting critical requirements for both RecF and RecBCD activity. The mismatch repair system may thus process UV-irradiated DNA so as to initiate more than one recombination pathway.     

Restoration of Mismatch Repair Functions in Human Cell Line Nalm-6, Which Has High Efficiency for Gene Targeting

Gene targeting is a powerful approach in reverse genetics. The approach has been hampered in most of human cell lines, however, by the poor targeting efficiency. Nalm-6, a human pre-B acute lymphoblastic leukemia cell line, exhibits exceptionally high gene targeting efficiency and is used in DNA repair and the related research fields. Nonetheless, usage of the cell line is still limited partly because it lacks expression of MSH2, a component of mismatch repair complex, which leads to increased genome instability. Here, we report successful restoration of MSH2 expression in Nalm-6 cells and demonstrate that the recovery does not affect the high targeting efficiency. We recovered the expression by introduction of cDNA sequences corresponding to exons 9 to 16 at downstream of exon 8 of the MSH2 gene. Endogenous exons 9 to 16 were deleted in the cell line. The MSH2 expression substantially reduced spontaneous HPRT mutation frequency. Moreover, gene targeting efficiency in the MSH2-expressing cells was similar to that in the MSH2-lacking cells. In fact, we generated heterozygously REV3L knockout and the catalytically dead mutants in the MSH2-proficient Nalm-6 cells with efficiency of 20–30%. The established cell line, Nalm-6-MSH+, is useful for reverse genetics in human cells.     

The Rec1 Gene of Ustilago Maydis, Which Encodes a 3'' -> 5'' Exonuclease, Couples DNA Repair and Completion of DNA Synthesis to a Mitotic Checkpoint

Mutation in the REC1 gene of Ustilago maydis results in extreme sensitivity to killing by ultraviolet light. The lethality of the rec1-1 mutant was found to be partially suppressed if irradiated cells were held artificially in G2-phase by addition of a microtubule inhibitor. This mutant was also found to be sensitive to killing when DNA synthesis was inhibited by external means through addition of hydroxyurea or by genetic control in a temperature-sensitive mutant strain defective in DNA synthesis. Flow cytometric analysis of exponentially growing cultures indicated that wild-type cells accumulated in G2 after UV irradiation, while rec1-1 cells appeared to exit from G2 and accumulate in G1/S. Analysis of mRNA levels in synchronized cells indicated that the REC1 gene is periodically expressed with the cell cycle and reaches maximal levels at G1/S. The results are interpreted to mean that a G2-M checkpoint is disabled in the rec1-1 mutant. It is proposed that the REC1 gene product functions in a surveillance system operating during S-phase and G2 to find and repair stretches of DNA with compromised integrity and to communicate with the cell cycle apparatus.     

Spontaneous Mitotic Recombination and Evidence for an X-Ray-Inducible System for the Repair of DNA Damage in DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER

Spontaneous mitotic recombination in the left arm of chromosome 3 was examined in both unirradiated control flies and sibs irradiated early in development by determining the sizes and frequencies of multiple-wing-hair (mwh) clones in the wing blade of heterozygous mwh/+ flies. Approximately 16% of the spontaneous mwh clones arise from events generating cells with normal division rates. The remaining 84% result from events generating cells with an average cell division rate one-third that of the surrounding cells; these are thought to result from events that generate aneuploid cells. Such clones probably arise from a failure correctly to repair spontaneous DNA damage. The frequency of spontaneous events late in development decreases significantly after irradiation as much as 150 hours earlier in development. The suppression of spontaneous events decreases with a longer period of time between irradiation and the final cell divisions in the wing blade. These results suggest the existence of a repair system for DNA damage in Drosophila that is induced by irradiation. The decrease in effect with time following irradiation could result from slow degradation or dilution by subsequent cell growth and division.     

A Genetic Analysis of Pannier, a Gene Necessary for Viability of Dorsal Tissues and Bristle Positioning in Drosophila

A genetic and phenotypic analysis of the gene pannier is described. Animals mutant for strong alleles die as embryos in which the cells of the amnioserosa are prematurely lost. This leads to a dorsal cuticular hole. The dorsal-most cells of the imagos are also affected: viable mutants exhibit a cleft along the dorsal midline. pannier mRNA accumulates specifically in the dorsal-most regions of the embryo and the imaginal discs. Viable mutants and mutant combinations also affect the thoracic and head bristle patterns in a complex fashion. Only those bristles within the area of expression of pannier are affected. A large number of alleles have been studied and reveal that pannier may have opposing effects on the expression of achaete and scute leading to a loss or a gain of bristles.     

The msh2 Gene of Schizosaccharomyces pombe Is Involved in Mismatch Repair, Mating-Type Switching, and Meiotic Chromosome Organization

We have identified in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe a MutS homolog that shows highest homology to the Msh2 subgroup. msh2 disruption gives rise to increased mitotic mutation rates and increased levels of postmeiotic segregation of genetic markers. In bandshift assays performed with msh2Δ cell extracts, a general mismatch-binding activity is absent. By complementation assays, we showed that S. pombe msh2 is allelic with the previously identified swi8 and mut3 genes, which are involved in mating-type switching. The swi8-137 mutant has a mutation in the msh2 gene which causes a truncated Msh2 peptide lacking a putative DNA-binding domain. Cytological analysis revealed that during meiotic prophase of msh2-defective cells, chromosomal structures were frequently formed; such structures are rarely found in the wild type. Our data show that besides having a function in mismatch repair, S. pombe msh2 is required for correct termination of copy synthesis during mating-type switching as well as for proper organization of chromosomes during meiosis.     

A Novel Function of the DNA Repair Gene rhp6 in Mating-Type Silencing by Chromatin Remodeling in Fission Yeast

Recent studies have indicated that the DNA replication machinery is coupled to silencing of mating-type loci in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and a similar silencing mechanism may operate in the distantly related yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Regarding gene regulation, an important function of DNA replication may be in coupling of faithful chromatin assembly to reestablishment of the parental states of gene expression in daughter cells. We have been interested in isolating mutants that are defective in this hypothesized coupling. An S. pombe mutant fortuitously isolated from a screen for temperature-sensitive growth and silencing phenotype exhibited a novel defect in silencing that was dependent on the switching competence of the mating-type loci, a property that differentiates this mutant from other silencing mutants of S. pombe as well as of S. cerevisiae. This unique mutant phenotype defined a locus which we named sng1 (for silencing not governed). Chromatin analysis revealed a switching-dependent unfolding of the donor loci mat2P and mat3M in the sng1⁻ mutant, as indicated by increased accessibility to the in vivo-expressed Escherichia coli dam methylase. Unexpectedly, cloning and sequencing identified the gene as the previously isolated DNA repair gene rhp6. RAD6, an rhp6 homolog in S. cerevisiae, is required for postreplication DNA repair and ubiquitination of histones H2A and H2B. This study implicates the Rad6/rhp6 protein in gene regulation and, more importantly, suggests that a transient window of opportunity exists to ensure the remodeling of chromatin structure during chromosome replication and recombination. We propose that the effects of the sng1⁻/rhp6⁻ mutation on silencing are indirect consequences of changes in chromatin structure.     

螺旋藻多糖对核酸内切酶活性和DNA修复合成的增强作用

本文用核酸内切酶实验和放射自显影术研究了螺旋藻水溶性多糖对DNA切除修复的效应。结果表明,该多糖能显著增强辐射引起DNA损伤的切除修复活性和程序外DNA合成(UDS)。考察切除修复的时程,发现螺旋藻多糖的存在不但能加快损伤DNA切除反应和UDS的初时速度,而且能延缓以上两个重要修复反应的饱和。     

牛组织中MBD1基因表达及其DNA甲基化调节

DNA甲基化是主要的表观遗传调节方式,在转录水平调节基因的表达,甲基化CpG结合蛋白MBD1能够结合甲基化及非甲基化的DNA,通过抑制域抑制基因的转录,在DNA甲基化和转录抑制之间起重要作用,但DNA甲基化对MBD1自身的调节作用还不清楚.本研究首先利用RT-PCR检测成年牛心脏、肾脏、肝脏、睾丸及卵巢5种组织中MBD1基因mRNA的表达;并根据牛MBD1调节区序列,针对其中的12个CpG位点设计引物,利用甲基化PCR测序分析方法,分析该调节区的DNA甲基化状态在牛5种组织中的变化.结果表明,在牛的5种组织中,MBD1基因在心脏和肾脏的表达量低于肝脏、睾丸及卵巢,且差异显著(P＜0.05);DNA甲基化检测显示,心脏和肾脏MBD1调节区的甲基化比率较肝脏、睾丸及卵巢甲基化低,说明调控区DNA甲基化与MBD1基因的组织特异性表达相关.