‘Inordinate Fondness’: A Threat to Beetles in South East Asia?

A recent report on trade in stag beetles and rhinoceros beetles in Japan highlights a number of issues of considerable importance for beetle conservation resulting from such trade over much of south east Asia. The popularity of these beetles has both positive and negative effects, and there is need for more effective control and monitoring of this trade to enhance positive values and reduce likely harm to species and habitats.     

One hundred million years of skin feeding? Extended parental care in a Neotropical caecilian (Amphibia: Gymnophiona)

Maternal dermatophagy, the eating of maternal skin by offspring, is an unusual form of parental investment involving co-evolved specializations of both maternal skin and offspring dentition, which has been recently discovered in an African caecilian amphibian. Here we report the discovery of this form of parental care in a second, distantly related Neotropical species Siphonops annulatus, where it is characterized by the same syndrome of maternal and offspring specializations. The detailed similarities of skin feeding in different caecilian species provide strong evidence of its homology, implying its presence in the last common ancestor of these species. Biogeographic considerations, the separation of Africa and South American land masses and inferred timescales of amphibian diversification all suggest that skin feeding is an ancient form of parental care in caecilians, which has probably persisted in multiple lineages for more than 100 Myr. These inferences support the hypotheses that (i) maternal dermatophagy is widespread in oviparous direct-developing caecilians, and (ii) that viviparous caecilians that feed on the hypertrophied maternal oviduct evolved from skin-feeding ancestors. In addition to skin-feeding, young S. annulatus were observed to congregate around, and imbibe liquid exuded from, the maternal cloacal opening.     

A molecular phylogeny of Glaphyridae (Coleoptera: Scarabaeoidea): evolution of pollination and association with ‘Poppy guild’ flowers

Among Scarabaeoidea, pollen feeding occurs in two major lineages, pleurostict Scarabaeidae and Glaphyridae. Here we infer for the first time the phylogeny of the scarabaeoid lineage Glaphyridae (Coleoptera) based on molecular data using partial gene sequences for 28S rRNA, cytochrome oxidase I (cox1) and 16S rRNA (rrnL) for 41 species. Based on the resulting tree topology, we inferred the timing of the origin of pollination and of their coevolution with different flower host taxa, with particular focus on the prominent red-coloured ‘poppy guild’ flowers. All genera of Glaphyridae that were sampled with multiple species were recovered as monophyletic. According to this analysis, the origin of Glaphyridae was around 140 Ma, while crown group divergence was dated to have occurred c. 112 Ma. Pollen feeding originated in Glaphyridae only once and much later than in other important pollinator groups, between 97 and 67 Ma. According to the reconstruction of ancestral feeding traits, Asteraceae (Cicharioidae) were the first hosts of Glaphyridae. Presumably, a further adaptive radiation was triggered by feeding on and pollination of red flowers (poppy guild) which arose at a later stage. It occurred for the first time between 30 and 40 Ma, whereby the clades that use red Ranunculaceae (Pygopleurus spp.) are older than clades using exclusively red Papaveraceae (Eulasia spp.) (25–30 Ma). The rather young age of red Ranunculaceae would imply that Pygopleurus species only subsequently used red Ranunculus species as flower hosts, and that a broad parallel host shift probably from red Papaver spp. to red Ranunculus asiaticus has occurred rather recently.     

Archaeological Soybean (Glycine max) in East Asia: Does Size Matter?

The recently acquired archaeological record for soybean from Japan, China and Korea is shedding light on the context in which this important economic plant became associated with people and was domesticated. This paper examines archaeological (charred) soybean seed size variation to determine what insight can be gained from a comprehensive comparison of 949 specimens from 22 sites. Seed length alone appears to represent seed size change through time, although the length × width × thickness product has the potential to provide better size change resolution. A widespread early association of small seeded soybean is as old as 9000-8600 cal BP in northern China and 7000 cal BP in Japan. Direct AMS radiocarbon dates on charred soybean seeds indicate selection resulted in large seed sizes in Japan by 5000 cal BP (Middle Jomon) and in Korea by 3000 cal BP (Early Mumun). Soybean seeds recovered in China from the Shang through Han periods are similar in length to the large Korean and Japanese specimens, but the overall size of the large Middle and Late Jomon, Early Mumun through Three Kingdom seeds is significantly larger than any of the Chinese specimens. The archaeological record appears to disconfirm the hypothesis of a single domestication of soybean and supports the view informed by recent phyologenetic research that soybean was domesticated in several locations in East Asia.     

New insights into Trimezieae (Iridaceae) phylogeny: what do molecular data tell us?

Background and Aims

The Neotropical tribe Trimezieae are taxonomically difficult. They are generally characterized by the absence of the features used to delimit their sister group Tigridieae. Delimiting the four genera that make up Trimezieae is also problematic. Previous family-level phylogenetic analyses have not examined the monophyly of the tribe or relationships within it. Reconstructing the phylogeny of Trimezieae will allow us to evaluate the status of the tribe and genera and to examine the suitability of characters traditionally used in their taxonomy.

Methods

Maximum parsimony and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses are presented for 37 species representing all four genera of Trimezieae. Analyses were based on nrITS sequences and a combined plastid dataset. Ancestral character state reconstructions were used to investigate the evolution of ten morphological characters previously considered taxonomically useful.

Key Results

Analyses of nrITS and plastid datasets strongly support the monophyly of Trimezieae and recover four principal clades with varying levels of support; these clades do not correspond to the currently recognized genera. Relationships within the four clades are not consistently resolved, although the conflicting resolutions are not strongly supported in individual analyses. Ancestral character state reconstructions suggest considerable homoplasy, especially in the floral characters used to delimit Pseudotrimezia.

Conclusions

The results strongly support recognition of Trimezieae as a tribe but suggest that both generic- and species-level taxonomy need revision. Further molecular analyses, with increased sampling of taxa and markers, are needed to support any revision. Such analyses will help determine the causes of discordance between the plastid and nuclear data and provide a framework for identifying potential morphological synapomorphies for infra-tribal groups. The results also suggest Trimezieae provide a promising model for evolutionary research.     

Are Assemblages of Aquatic‐Breeding Anurans (Amphibia) Niches Structured or Neutral?

Local niche‐based processes and dispersal are important determinants of assemblage composition and species diversity. However, there is no consensus about the relative importance of niche and spatial processes to explain the distribution of anuran species in tropical systems. In our study, we analyzed the niche and neutral effects on anuran assemblages and found that biotic interactions were a predictor of assemblage structure. The Eltonian concept of niche was the best predictor for the structure of aquatic‐breeding anuran assemblages, as species tended to co‐occur more often than would be expected by chance. We suggest that the lack of environmental effect could be explained by differences in the pattern of movement between arboreal and non‐arboreal anurans. Once there is a reduction in the number of arboreal anurans in open areas, the importance of habitat heterogeneity to explain assemblage composition should decrease. The lack of correlation between the spatial component in our model and species composition is evidence that spatial processes, such as migration, did not play a major role in structuring local assemblages. Anurans are generally assumed as having poor dispersal ability, yet this assumption is not true for all anuran species. We suggest that future studies should include key behavioral traits, such as site fidelity and homing behavior, as these traits can represent the dispersal abilities of anurans and dispersal ability seems to be important when we try to predict patterns of anuran distribution.     

Endemics or strangers? The integrative re-appraisal of taxonomy and phylogeny of the Greenland Lymnaeidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda)

The Lymnaeidae constitute a significant part of the freshwater molluscan diversity of Greenland. Since 1842, not less than 10 nominal taxa of the species and variety rank were described to organize the diversity of the Greenland lymnaeid snails. All previous attempts to revise these taxa were systematically based on morphological evidence only. Here, we provide a molecular analysis of the phylogenetic affinity and systematic status of three alleged species of the Greenland Lymnaeidae: Lymnaea vahlii (Møller, 1842), L. holboellii (Møller, 1842), and L. pingelii (Møller, 1842). We examined the newly collected material and inspected the type series of the three species. Our results show a very tight relationship between the Greenland snails and the Nearctic species Ladislavella catascopium (Say, 1817) s. lato. From the genetic point of view, the Greenland populations should be classified within L. catascopium, albeit probably with the merit of a subspecies status. The three nominal species of lymnaeids described by Møller (1842) are apparently synonyms of each other. Our findings assume a rather recent colonization of Greenland by snails arriving from the North American mainland, which is compatible with the so-called “tabula rasa” hypothesis, proposed to explain the currently observed taxonomic diversity of continental animals and plants of the North Atlantic islands. No lymnaeid species endemic to Greenland is thus revealed.     

The origin of the Hominidae: Africa or Asia?

The authors review the evidence for the evolution of the apes and their geographical expansion out of Africa during the Miocene. The ecological background is discussed at each period.From this it is concluded that Dryopithecines in either Africa or Eurasia could have given rise to early Hominidae and that the ecological conditions in both continents were suitable for the appearance of Hominid adaptations.The evidence for early Hominids is at present more impressive in Eurasia than in Africa, though the African find from Fort Ternan, Kenya, is the earliest. On present evidence, neither continent can be precluded as the place of origin of the Hominidae and it appears to be a possibility that Hominidae evolved in both continents with intermittent gene exchange.     

The phylogeny ofPapaver s. l. (Papaveraceae): Polyphyly or monophyly?

An RFLP analysis of the chloroplast genetrnK of 32 species of the generaPapaver, Roemeria, Stylomecon, andMeconopsis leads to the following conclusions: (1) AsianMeconopsis consists of two distinct clades and is paraphyletic in relation toPapaver, Roemeria, Stylomecon, and the W EuropeanMeconopsis cambrica. (2) Sister group relationships ofRoemeria toPapaver sect.Argemonidium and ofStylomecon toPapaver californicum are well-supported. (3)Meconopsis cambrica is nested withinPapaver (incl.Roemeria andStylomecon). The consideration of morphology, geographical distribution and ecology leads to the conclusion thatM. cambrica is best regarded as a member ofMeconopsis, and thatPapaver arose polyphyletically from within a paraphyleticMeconopsis in response to Tertiary climatic aridification. — The removal ofM. cambrica from the taxon matrix is discussed. It is concluded that this experiment illuminates the importance of critical taxon sampling, and shows that at least potentially the assessment of taxa as mono-, para-, or polyphyletic may characterize their present status only and need not reflect their phylogenetic history.     

The historic biogeography of India: isolation or contact?

Geophysical maps depicting continental movement have consistently shown India, as it moved northward, to be located far out in the Tethys Sea. India split off from the African east coast about 148 m.y.a. From that time onward, according to almost all geophysical accounts, India was isolated from all of other continents until the early Miocene when it made contact with Eurasia. But the biological data, both fossil and Recent, indicate that this concept cannot be correct. If India had really existed as an isolated, oceanic continent for about 100 m.y., it should have developed a peculiar biota with many endemic genera and families in its terrestrial and shallow marine habitats. But there are virtually no remains of organisms indicating that India was isolated for any substantial time (millions of years). Instead, we find that almost all Indian taxa were possessed in common with other continents. As time went on, the northern relationships became stronger and the southern ones weaker. Most of the recent geophysical accounts show India not making contact with Eurasia until the early Miocene, but fossil materials show that this event must have taken place by the early Eocene. It has been postulated that, as India moved northward, it created a biogeographic barrier that separated marine fish populations and resulted in the east-west provinces that are now apparent in the Indian Ocean. At the same time, the barrier effect was supposed to have resulted in the formation of sister species that are now located far apart. Information currently available indicates that most living, tropical marine species are probably not over 3 m.y. old. Consequently, the northward movement of India, which took place primarily between 148 and 50 m.y.a., could have no bearing on the relationships of modern species.     

Extinction of South American sparassodontans (Metatheria): environmental fluctuations or complex ecological processes?

Sparassodontans are a diverse but now extinct group of metatherians that were apex predators in South America during most of the Cenozoic. Studying their decline has been controversial mainly due to the scarcity of the fossil record, and different methodological approaches have led to contradictory hypotheses. In an effort to explore questions about their extinction, we developed a novel multi‐model statistical approach to analyse all of the currently available data at a continental scale. Using multiple regression analysis and new advances in beta diversity analysis, we used all currently available fossil data at a continental scale to test four competing hypotheses to account for the decline of sparassodontans: competition with placental carnivorans, competition with avian phorusrhacids, non‐competitive ecological interactions, and environmental fluctuations. Our results show that the sparassodontan extinction was a gradual process with species disappearing throughout the Cenozoic. Multiple regression analysis supported non‐competitive ecological interactions as the best extinction model. Native South American ungulates, African migrants (caviomorph rodents and platyrrhine primates) and didelphimorphians were the groups with the highest statistical significance. Sparassodontan beta diversity increased between South American Land Mammal Ages after the Paleocene–Eocene boundary. Our results demonstrate that ecological modelling techniques illuminate aspects of extinction processes whilst mitigating the limitations of the fossil record. Our study suggests that non‐competitive ecological interactions could have been the main driver for sparassodontan extinction rather than, as commonly assumed, a result of competition and/or abiotic fluctuations.     

Spirit possession in South Asia,dissociation or hysteria? Part 2: Case histories

Psychoanalytic theory appears flawed in the way it has been traditionally applied in anthropological studies of spirit possession in South Asia. It is suggested that pathological spirit possession in South Asia has a similar etiology to multiple personality disorder in North America, which is caused by spontaneous trance reactions to extreme situations in the environment, particularly child abuse. Reanalyses of previously published case histories of spirit possession illnesses in South Asia are presented from the perspective of dissociation theory, highlighting possible etiology not considered relevant in earlier psychoanalytic theories.     

Morphotypes or distinct species? A multilocus assessment of two East Asian scimitar babblers (Aves,Timaliidae)

In birds, widespread species complexes often exhibit dramatic plumage differences across their distribution, which can give rise to discordance between morphotypes and phylogroups. Accurate identification of species diversity may require an integrated approach in which multilocus genetic data are used for inference and further corroborated by ecological, morphometric or behavioural data. Pomatorhinus gravivox and P. swinhoei, which were formerly considered component races of P. erythrogenys, were recently split using a delimitation system that mainly relied on the quantification of differences in phenotypic traits. We therefore carried out a reassessment of this taxonomic recommendation by conducting phylogenetic and population genetic analyses with multilocus genetic data. A deep mitochondrial split with a Kimura 2-parameter distance of 0.061 was observed, mainly corresponding to the two morphologically defined species. However, one individual from P. swinhoei harboured a haplotype of P. gravivox. Individual-based analyses of nuclear loci identified two distinct clusters that were exactly congruent with the two species. BPP delimitation also provided support for the separation. These congruencies support the notion that these two taxa are best regarded as two separate species. The presence of the P. gravivox mitochondrial haplotype in P. swinhoei was most likely a result of hybridization, due to the clear separation of nuclear loci. The speciation might be attributed to paleoclimatic changes but requires further evaluation due to the likelihood of ecological speciation. This study was in accordance with the results inferred from the quantitative system but highlighted the importance of sampling various data, especially in contact zones, in the study of taxonomy and speciation history.     

Phylogeography and molecular phylogeny of Macaronesian island Tarphius (Coleoptera: Zopheridae): why are there so few species in the Azores?

Aim We used a phylogenetic framework to examine island colonization and predictions pertaining to differentiation within Macaronesian Tarphius (Insecta, Coleoptera, Zopheridae), and explain the paucity of endemics in the Azores compared with other Macaronesian archipelagos. Specifically, we test whether low diversity in the Azores could be due to recent colonization (phylogenetic lineage youth), cryptic speciation (distinct phylogenetic entities within species) or the young geological age of the archipelago. Location Macaronesian archipelagos (Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands), northern Portugal and Morocco. Methods Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial and nuclear genes of Tarphius beetles of the Azores, other Macaronesian islands and neighbouring continental areas were used to investigate the origin of island biodiversity and to compare patterns of colonization and differentiation. A comparative nucleotide substitution rate test was used to select the appropriate substitution rate to infer clade divergence times. Results Madeiran and Canarian Tarphius species were found to be more closely related to each other, while Azorean taxa grouped separately. Azorean taxa showed concordance between species and phylogenetic clades, except for species that occur on multiple islands, which segregated by island of origin. Divergence time estimates revealed that Azorean Tarphius are an old group and that the most recent intra‐island speciation event on Santa Maria, the oldest island, occurred between 3.7 and 6.1 Ma. Main conclusions Our phylogenetic approach provides new evidence to understand the impoverishment of Azorean endemics: (1) Tarphius have had a long evolutionary history within the Azores, which does not support the hypothesis of fewer radiation events due to recent colonization; (2) the current taxonomy of Azorean Tarphius does not reflect common ancestry and cryptic speciation is responsible for the underestimation of endemics; (3) intra‐island differentiation in the Azores was found only in the oldest island, supporting the idea that young geological age of the archipelago limits the number of endemics; and (4) the lack of evidence for recent intra‐island diversification in Santa Maria could also explain the paucity of Azorean endemics. Phylogenetic reconstructions of other species‐rich taxa that occur on multiple Macaronesian archipelagos will reveal whether our conclusions are taxon specific, or of a more general nature.     

DNA construction: homemade or ordered out?

Automation and optimization of DNA construction results in the efficient production of large target sequences.     

Flyway homogenisation or differentiation? Insights from the phylogeny of the sandpiper (Charadriiformes: Scolopacidae: Calidrinae) wing louse genus Lunaceps (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera)

The wing louse genus Lunaceps, is the most speciose chewing louse (Phthiraptera) genus inhabiting sandpipers (Charadriiformes: Calidrinae) and is known from almost all sandpiper species. The hosts follow specific flyways from the Arctic breeding grounds to wintering locations in the southern hemisphere, and often form large mixed-species flocks during migration and wintering. We estimated a phylogeny of Lunaceps based on three mitochondrial loci, supporting monophyly of the genus but revealing extensive paraphyly at the species level. We also evaluated the relative importance of flyway differentiation (same host species having different lice along different flyways) and flyway homogenisation (different host species having the same lice along the same flyway). We found that while the lice of smaller sandpipers and stints show some evidence of flyway homogenisation, those of larger sandpipers do not. No investigated host species migrating along more than one flyway showed any evidence of flyway differentiation. The host-parasite associations within Lunaceps are in no case monophyletic, rejecting strict cospeciation.     

The phylogeny of elateroidea (Coleoptera), or which tree is best today?

Abstract — The relationships of the clicking Elateroidea beetles were studied with the help of parsimony analysis using Hennig86. The character matrix included 70 characters and 27 taxa. The results demonstrate the monophyly of the group Throscidae sensu Crowson, contrary to views presented in other papers. Methods for solving this problem were sought. When several minimum length solutions were obtained, successive weighting and a search for a strict consensus tree identical with one of the original trees appeared to be acceptable ways for trying to identify the preferred solution. When conflicting trees from separate data sets were compared, a combined global analysis turned out to be impossible to perform because the data sets used different terminal taxa. In this case, the incongruence and total support tests provided by Farris' programs RNA and KON proved indispensable. The conflict found between the results obtained here and those presented by other workers using a large suite of larval characters were shown to be caused by an incongruent data matrix used in the latter study—the larval data set resulted in a polyphyletic ingroup and suggests relationships quite different from adult data alone. Directed large scale homoplasy due to repeated re-invasion of two major habitats by separate clades may be the factor causing difficulties in coding the larval characters.     

A morphological and molecular perspective of Trichoderma viride: is it one or two species?

Trichoderma (Ascomycetes, Hypocreales) strains that have warted conidia are traditionally identified as T. viride, the type species of Trichoderma. However, two morphologically distinct types of conidial warts (I and II) have been found. Because each type corresponds to a unique mitochondrial DNA pattern, it has been questioned whether T. viride comprises more than one species. Combined molecular data (sequences of the internal transcribed spacer 1 [ITS-1] and ITS-2 regions and of part of the 28S rRNA gene along with results of restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the endochitinase gene and PCR fingerprinting), morphology, physiology, and colony characteristics distinguish type I and type II as different species. Type I corresponds to "true" T. viride, the anamorph of Hypocrea rufa. Type II represents a new species, T. asperellum, which is, in terms of molecular characteristics, close to the neotype of T. hamatum.     

Ultrastructure of spermatozoa of Solifuges (Arachnida, Solifugae): possible characters for their phylogeny?

The ultrastructure of spermatozoa is a widely accepted source of characters for phylogenetic studies. In this study the fine structure of sperm cells of representatives of six different New and Old World families (Ammotrechidae, Daesiidae, Eremobatidae, Galeodidae, Karschiidae, Solpugidae) of solifuges (Arachnida, Solifugae) were investigated in order to reveal putative characters suitable for subsequent systematic and phylogenetic analyses. The spermatozoa of solifuges represent a relatively simple type of sperm cells. In general, their spermatozoa are roundish, oval shaped (Ammotrechidae, Daesiidae, Eremobatidae, Solpugidae) or plate-shaped (Karschiidae) with or without membrane protuberances and devoid of a flagellum. Only in Galeodidae, very conspicuous thin and elongated sperm cells occur. The spermatozoa either occur as single cells (Eremobatidae, Solpugidae) or in groups of loose knit cells (Ammotrechidae) or in highly ordered groups (Karschiidae). In contrast to the other families studied here, within the Galeodidae and in the genus Blossia (Daesiidae) sperm cells surrounded by a secretion sheath, clearly representing coenospermia, could be observed.